The material here is taken from the following article: 9 Reasons Why Joseph of Arimathea Was a Real Historical Figure.

Joseph of Arimathea plays a big role in defending Jesus’ resurrection. He stood near the center of Bart Ehrman’s reconsideration of the facts surrounding the resurrection. After all, if Joseph of Arimathea really did have a tomb that was used for Jesus’ body, then the burial is nearly secure. This fact is often the most contested, so the importance of Joseph is seen quite clearly. This post will give 9 reasons why Joseph of Arimathea was a real historical figure using Eckhard Schnabel’s recent Jesus in Jerusalem: the Last Days.

The Man

All four gospels mention Joseph of Arimathea. ^[1] Why is he designated by “of Arimathea” though? This is because Joseph was “the second most common male name among Palestinian Jews.”  Arimathea could be his birth place or where he owned estates. Arimathea is identified with Ramathaim, a Judean town. It is about 9 miles northeast of Lydda and 22 miles northwest of Jerusalem. Given the references to Joseph’s wealth and membership in the Sanhedrin, he would be part of the lay aristocracy. Joseph’s relation to the Jesus movement is complex. He is sympathetic, although not necessarily fully committed. He is a follower in some sense, but he fears the Judean rulers.

The Tomb

The centrality of Joseph is in his burial of Jesus in the tomb. ^[2] The traditional site is “the Anastasis of Constantine’s church, under the Edicule in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.” Many scholars accept this identification as authentic. Dan Bahat is one of the “most distinguished archaeologists of Jerusalem.” He states that while there is not absolute certainty, no other site can lay a claim nearly as weighty and there is no reason to reject authenticity. The lack of certainty is due to the fact that “there is another tomb underneath the Church of the Holy Sepulchre that dates from the Roman period, known as the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, located at the western side of the rotunda of the Anastasis.” ^[3] As is well known, a stone was rolled to seal or unseal the tomb. However, we know that the traditional depiction of the stone as a circle is not historically accurate. Nonetheless, the terminology used in the New Testament does not indicate the shape of the stone. Thus, the fact that the burial stone for Jesus was “most likely rectangular or square in shape” is no problem. These, too, had to be rolled.

The Burial

Jesus was buried with a linen cloth. ^[4] The quality varied from coarse to very fine. Removing Jesus from the cross would require several people. Joseph would probably have used some of his servants. This also explains how Joseph would not become unclean through this process. The spices that Nicodemus brings weighed about 75 pounds. This number is not abnormal though, as “Aquila burned about 80 pounds of spices at the funeral of Gamaliel.” Since Nicodemus was part of one of the richest families in Jerusalem, the expense is not a worry either. The burial process included laying out the body, washing and anointing it, binding the chin, and closing the eyes. The hair was also trimmed. While the body was wrapped in linen, the head was covered with a veil. Scented spices were used in all three phases of the burial process: the preparation, the funeral procession, and the interment. The stones in front of the tomb typically weighed 1,500 to 3,000 pounds. A transverse channel made it easier to roll the stone. However, it was not possible to roll the stone from inside the tomb.

9 Reasons

A number of lines come together to support the biblical portrayal of Joseph of Arimathea. This does not cover all of the supporting evidence. These nine we cite simply highlight some of the interesting lines provided by Schnabel.

1. It was risky for a man to ask for the body of a convicted criminal. Thus, only a courageous ally would do so. This boldness by Joseph is mentioned in Mark 15:43. ^[5]
2. Haste surrounds the burial of Jesus. This must be done in order to follow God’s Law with the coming Sabbath and Passover. This haste perfectly fits Jesus being buried in Joseph’s tomb. ^[6]
3. Similarly, this hasty burial fits the portrayal of Joseph as sympathetic to Jesus. As Schnabel says, “Unless one assumes that Joseph was a pious Jew who buried Jesus merely in order to prevent the land from being defiled on Passover and to fulfill the demands of Jewish piety in a concern to provide a proper burial for the dead, there is no good reason to infer that Jesus’ tomb ‘was probably a well-used crypt reserved for the burial of criminals.’” ^[7] On top of this, the point above about it being risky to ask for the body of a condemned criminal conjoins to make a proper burial even more likely.
4. If crucifixion victims would normally be taken down and buried when Rome was not at war with the Jewish nation (as Evans argues), then others would have buried Jesus’ body. Thus, Joseph asking to bury the body pushes against Jesus being buried in a common place for criminals. ^[8]
5. The traditional site of the tomb was discovered when Constantine demolished Hadrian’s Temple of Venus. As the fill was removed, the tomb was discovered. As Schnabel says, “The fact that the area that lay well inside the city walls at the time of Constantine, bearing no resemblance to the original area, was remembered as the site of Jesus’ tomb is a strong argument for its authenticity.” ^[9]
6. As noted above, anointing was part of the burial process. However, this is never mentioned in the gospels. The gospels do, however, mention that the women followers intended to anoint Jesus’ body on Sunday morning. Thus, this fact fits perfectly with the surrounding facts. ^[10] 
7. Joseph was part of the lay aristocracy. During this time, the lay aristocracy buried their deceased family members in tombs cut into rock. This fits perfectly with Joseph’s tomb. ^[11]
8. The gospels stress that the women watched and were intent on seeing how Jesus’ body was taken care of and where it was laid. The way this is mentioned in the gospels highlights the eyewitness aspect of these events. ^[12] 
9. The resurrection motif occurs in various forms of Roman fictional literature from the time of emperor Nero in the middle of the first century. Sometimes this is simply an apparent death. Protesilaus, however, is given a resurrected body, walks among the people, and teaches them. Glen Bowersock, a classical historian, says “the Gospel stories of Jesus’ resurrection provided the impetus for the emergence of Roman fiction in which the resurrection motif was prominent, concluding that ‘the stories of Jesus inspired the polytheists to create a wholly new genre that we might call romantic scripture.’” ^[13] This provides strong evidence for bodily resurrection of Jesus early on in the Jesus movement.

Conclusion

This work is comprehensive. It covers possibly everything about the days of Jesus in and around his crucifixion and resurrection. Schnabel discusses 72 people, 17 places, the timeline, 24 events, and the significance of the events. 2,255 endnotes (boo!) make up 179 pages. This work is simply outstanding.

In order to do justice to it, we have had to focus on one small facet: Joseph of Arimathea. We have looked at the man, his tomb, and his burial of Jesus. We have also given nine pieces of evidence that support Jesus’ bodily resurrection. As Eckhard Schnabel says, “There is no good reason to doubt that Joseph buried Jesus’ body in his new family tomb that was nearby the location of Jesus’ crucifixion in a garden.” ^[14]

Again, all of this is only the tip of the iceberg. For anyone who wants to learn more about this fascinating topic, Jesus in Jerusalem: the Last Days should be mandatory reading. I plan on consulting it consistently as I work my way through this topic.

I received a complimentary copy from Eerdmans. The opinions I have expressed are my own, and I was not required to write a positive review.

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Notes

[1] For this section, see Jesus in Jerusalem: the Last Days, 40-42.

[2] For this section, see ibid., 135-137.

[3] Reference to a figure omitted.

[4] For this section, see ibid., 342-345.[5] Ibid., 41.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Ibid.; quoting Byron McCane.

[8] Ibid., 41-42; following Craig Evans’s commentary on Mark.

[9] Ibid., 135.

[10] Ibid., 343.

[11] Ibid., 343-344.

[12] Ibid., 344-345.

[13] Ibid., 392; citing Bowersock, Fiction as History.

[14] Ibid., 42.

Many folks may be unaware of the fact that the Swiss reformer and lawyer John Calvin actually thought that the archangel Michael was actually Jesus Christ. This view can be found in his commentary on Daniel 10:13 and 12:1. All emphasis will be mine:

“He adds next, Behold! Michael, one of the chief leaders or princes, came to strengthen me Some think the word Michael represents Christ, and I do not object to this opinion. Clearly enough, if all angels keep watch over the faithful and elect, still Christ holds the first rank among them, because he is their head, and uses their ministry and assistance to defend all his people. But as this is not generally admitted, I leave it in doubt for the present, and shall say more on the subject in the twelfth chapter…” (Calvin’s Commentaries, 10:13 https://sacred-texts.com/chr/calvin/cc25/cc25004.htm) 

“… By Michael many agree in understanding Christ as the head of the Church. But if it seems better to understand Michael as the archangel, this sense will prove suitable, for under Christ as the head, angels are the guardians of the Church. Whichever be the true meaning, God was the preserver of his Church by the hand of his only-begotten Son, and because the angels are under the government of Christ, he might entrust this duty to Michael. That foul hypocrite, Servetus, has dared to appropriate this passage to himself; for he has inscribed it as a frontispiece on his horrible comments, because he was called Michael! We observe what diabolic fury has seized him, as he dared to claim as his own what is here said of the singular aid afforded by Christ; to his Church. He was a man of the most impure feelings, as we have already sufficiently made known. But this was a proof of his impudence and sacrilegious madness — to adorn himself with this epithet of Christ without, blushing, and. to elevate himself into Christ’s place, by boasting himself to be Michael, the guardian of the Church, and the mighty prince of the people! This fact is well known, for I have the book at hand should any one distrust my word…

LECTURE SIXTY-FIVE.

“… Daniel therefore represented Michael as the guardian of the Church, and God had enjoined this duty upon Christ, as we learn from the 10th chapter of John, (John 10:28, 29.) As we stated yesterday, Michael may mean an angel; but I EMBRACE THE OPINION OF THOSE WHO REFER THIS TO THE PERSON OF CHRIST, because it suits the subject best to represent him as standing forward for the defense of his elect people. He is called the mighty prince, because he naturally opposed the unconquered fortitude of God to those dangers to which the angel represents the Church to be subject. We well know the very slight causes for which terror often seizes our minds, and when we begin to tremble, nothing can calm our tumult and agitation. The angel then in treating of very grievous contests, and of the imminent danger of the Church, calls Michael the mighty prince As if he had said, Michael should be the guardian and protector of the elect people, he should exercise immense power, and he alone without the slightest doubt should be sufficient for their protection. Christ confirms the same assertion, as we just now saw, in the 10th chapter of John. He says all his elect were given him by his father, and none of them should perish, because his father was greater than all; no one, says he, shall pluck my sheep out of my hand. My father, who gave them me, is greater than all; meaning, God possesses infinite power, and displays it for the safety of those whom he has chosen before the creation of the world, and he has committed it to me, or has deposited it in my hands. We now perceive the reason of this epithet, which designates Michael as the great prince For in consequence of the magnitude of the contest, we ought to enjoy the offer of insuperable strength, to enable us to attain tranquillity in the midst of the greatest commotions… (Ibid., Dan. 12:1 https://sacred-texts.com/chr/calvin/cc25/cc25006.htm)

Calvin wasn’t the only Protestant Reformer to articulate such a view. Here I will present some others who held this position as well. Again, all emphasis will be mine.

GENEVA BIBLE

i. Daniel 10:13 Though God could by one Angel destroy all the world, yet to assure his children of his love, he sendeth forth double power, even Michael, that is, Christ Jesus the head of Angels.

a. Daniel 12:1 The Angel here noteth two things: first that the Church shall be in great affliction and trouble at Christ’s coming, and next that God will send his Angel to deliver it, whom here he calleth Michael, meaning Christ, which is published by the preaching of the Gospel.

n. Revelation 12:7 Christ is the Prince of Angels, and head of the Church, who beareth that iron rod, the fifth verse. See the notes upon Daniel, Dan. 12:1. In this verse a description of the battle and of the victory in the two verses following. The Psalmist had respect unto this battle, Ps. 68:9, and Paul, Eph. 4:1 and Col. 2:15. (Revelation 12:7)

JONATHAN EDWARDS

Satan has ever had a peculiar enmity against the Son of God. Probably his first rebellion, which was his condemnation, was his proudly taking it in disdain, when God declared the decree in heaven, that his Son in man’s nature, should be the King of heaven, and that all the angels should worship him. However that was, yet it is certain that his strife has ever been especially against the Son of God. The enmity has always been between the seed of the woman, and the serpent. And therefore that war which the devil maintains against God is represented by the devil and his angels fighting against Michael and his angels (Rev. 12:7). This Michael is Christ (Dan. 10:21 and 12:1). (Jonathan Edwards, Christ Exalted, Section III)

“Michael the king of angels, and his angels, he ‘whose name is called the Word of God,’ and ‘that has on his vesture and on his thigh a name written, “King of kings, and Lord of Lords”‘; and the heavenly armies that follow him, ‘clothed in fine linen white and clean.'” (The Works of Jonathan Edwards [WJE], 5:17, The Apocalyptic Writings)

“God’s power gloriously appears in conquering Satan when exalted in that strongest and most potent heathen kingdom than ever he had, the Roman Empire. Christ our Michael overcame him, and the devil was cast out, and there was found no more place in heaven for him, but he was cast out unto the earth and his angels were cast out with him.” (WJE, 9:523, History of Redemption)

“When Lucifer rebelled and set up himself as a head in opposition to God and Christ, and set himself as a head in opposition to God and Christ, and drew away a great number of angels, the Son of God, manifested himself as an opposite head, and appeared graciously to dissuade and restrain by his grace the elect angels from hearkening to Lucifer’s temptation, so that they were upheld and preserved eternal destruction at this time of great danger by the free and sovereign distinguishing grace of Christ. Herein Christ was the Saviour of the elect angels, for thought he did not save them as he did elect men from the ruin they had already deserved, and were condemned to, and the miserable, state they were already in, yet he saved them from eternal destruction they were in great danger of, and otherwise would have fallen into with the other angels. The elect angels joined with him, the glorious Michael, as their captain, while the other angels hearkened to Lucifer and joined him, and then was that literally true that fulfilled afterwards figuratively. Rev xii. ‘When there was war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against the dragon; and the dragon fought and his angels, and prevailed not; neither was there place found any more heaven. And the great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world; he was case out into the earth, and his angels were cast out with him.’” (WJE, 2:606)

JOHN GILL

but, lo, Michael one of the chief Princes, came to help me; called in the New Testament an Archangel, the Prince of angels, the Head of all principality and power; and is no other than Christ the Son of God, an UNCREATED Angel; who is “one”, or “the first of the chief Princes” {x}, superior to angels, in nature, name, and office; he came to “help” Gabriel, NOT AS A FELLOW CREATURE, but as the Lord of hosts; not as a fellow soldier, but as General of the armies in heaven and earth, as superior to him in wisdom and strength; and he helped him by giving him fresh counsels, orders, and instructions, which he following succeeded: (The New John Gill Exposition of the Entire Bible, Exposition of Dan. 10:13)

and there is none that holdeth with me in these things, but Michael your Prince; Christ the Prince of the kings of the earth, he was the Prince, Protector, and Guardian of the people of the Jews; he is the Angel that went before them in the wilderness, and guarded them in it, and guided them into the land of Canaan; he is the Angel of God’s presence, that bore, carried, and saved them all the days of old, and was their King AND THEIR GOD, their Defender and Deliverer, still; he took their part, and was on their side; yea, he was on the side of, and took part with, them that were for them, the holy angels; and there was none but him that exerted his power, and strengthened Gabriel to act for them in “these things” relating to their peace and prosperity: or, “against these”, as it may be rendered; against the princes of Persia and Greece, the evil spirits that worked in these kingdoms, in the children of disobedience there; and had it not been for him, and the exertion of his mighty power, it would have been soon all over with the people of the Jews; as it would be now with the church of Christ, of which they were typical, but the Lord is on their side; Michael the Archangel, and his angels under him, fight for it, protect and defend it; and since he is for his people, who shall be against them? or to what purpose will an opposition be? the gates of hell cannot prevail against the church of God, the saints of the most High. (Exposition of Dan. 10:21)

And at that time shall Michael stand up…

The Archangel, who has all the angels of heaven under him, and at his command, the Son of God, our Lord Jesus Christ; who is as God, as the name signifies, truly and really God, and equal in nature, power, and glory, to his divine Father: “he shall stand up”; which is not to be understood of his incarnation, or manifestation in the flesh, for this refers to times long after that; yet neither of his personal appearance in the clouds of heaven, and standing upon the earth in the latter day; but of his spiritual presence among his people, and protection of them, and continuance with them: this respects the spiritual reigns of Christ, the Lamb’s standing upon Mount Zion, and the 144,000 with him, (Revelation 14:1) , and this will be at that time, when the eastern antichrist, the Turk, will be destroyed; for the words are closely connected with the last verse of the preceding chapter; and when also the western antichrist, the pope of Rome, will come to his end; for, as they rose, so they will fall, much about the same time; and then Christ will rise and stand up, as the glorious Head of the church, and as a triumphant Conqueror over all his enemies, and take to himself his great power, and reign, and that kingdom which of right belongs to him.

The great Prince which standeth for the children of thy people; the King of kings, and Lord of lords, the Prince of the kings of the earth; great in his person, and in his office; great in dignity, power, and authority; who always did, and ever will, stand on the side of the true Israel of God: he espoused their cause very early; he wrought out salvation for them in time; he intercedes for them now in heaven, and will appear to be their patron and defender against all their enemies in the latter day: here it seems to have special regard to the people of the Jews, Daniel’s people; whom Christ shall appear unto, and for, in an eminent manner, to convert and save them, help and assist them, protect and defend them. (Exposition of Dan. 12:1)

Yet Michael the archangel…

By whom is meant, NOT A CREATED ANGEL, BUT AN ETERNAL ONE, the Lord Jesus Christ; as appears from his name Michael, which signifies, “who is as God”: and who is as God, or like unto him, but the Son of God, who is equal with God? and from his character as the archangel, or Prince of angels, for Christ is the head of all principality and power; and from what is elsewhere said of Michael, as that he is the great Prince, and on the side of the people of God, and to have angels under him, and at his command, (Daniel 10:21) (12:1) (Revelation 12:7) . So Philo the Jew calls the most ancient Word, firstborn of God, the archangel; Uriel is called the archangel in this passage from the Apocrypha:

“And unto these things Uriel the archangel gave them answer, and said, Even when the number of seeds is filled in you: for he hath weighed the world in the balance.” (2 Esdras 4:36) (Exposition of Jude 1:9)

Michael and his angels fought against the dragon:

by whom is meant NOT A CREATED ANGEL, with whom his name does not agree, it signifying “who is as God”; nor does it appear that there is anyone created angel that presides over the rest, and has them at his command; though the Jews seem to imagine as if the angels were ranged under several heads and governors, of whom they make Michael to be one; for they say,

“when the holy blessed God descended on Mount Sinai, several companies of angels descended with him, (wtrwbxw lakym), “Michael and his company”, and Gabriel and his company:”

“so kings armies”, in (Psalm 68:12); are by them interpreted of “kings of angels”; and it is asked who are these? and the answer is, Michael and Gabriel. Lord Napier thinks that the Holy Ghost is designed, who is equally truly God as the Father and the Son, and who in the hearts of the saints opposes Satan and his temptations; but it seems best to interpret it of Jesus Christ, WHO IS EQUAL WITH GOD, is his fellow, is one with the Father, and in whom the fulness of the Godhead dwells bodily: he is the Archangel, the first of the chief princes, the head of all principality and power, who is on the side of the Lord’s people, pleads their cause, defends their persons, and saves them; see (Jude 1:9) (Daniel 10:13) (12:1); and by “his angels” may be meant either the good angels, literally understood, who are his creatures, his ministers, and whom he employs under him, in protecting his people, and in destroying his enemies; or else the ministers of the Gospel, who are called angels in this book, and who, under Christ, fight the good fight of faith, contend earnestly for it, being valiant for the truth upon earth; or rather the Christian emperors, particularly Constantine and Theodosius, and the Christians with them, who opposed Paganism in the empire, and at last subdued, and cast it out: (Exposition on Rev. 12:7)

ADAM CLARKE

But lo, Michael — Gabriel, who speaks, did not leave Cyrus till Michael came to take his place. Michael, he who is like God, sometimes appears to signify the Messiah, at other times the highest or chief archangel. Indeed there is no archangel mentioned in the whole Scripture but this one. See Jude 1:9; Revelation 12:7. (Clarke Commentary on the Bible, Daniel, Chapter 10)

Verse Jude 1:9. Yet Michael the archangel — Of this personage many things are spoken in the Jewish writings “Rabbi Judah Hakkodesh says: Wherever Michael is said to appear, the glory of the Divine Majesty is always to be understood.” Shemoth Rabba, sec. ii., fol. 104, 3. So that it seems as if they considered Michael in some sort as we do the Messiah manifested in the flesh.

Let it be observed that the word archangel is never found in the plural number in the sacred writings. There can be properly only one archangel, one chief or head of all the angelic host. Nor is the word devil, as applied to the great enemy of mankind, ever found in the plural; there can be but one monarch of all fallen spirits. Michael is this archangel, and head of all the angelic orders; the devil, great dragon, or Satan, is head of all the diabolic orders. When these two hosts are opposed to each other they are said to act under these two chiefs, as leaders; hence in Revelation 12:7, it is said: MICHAEL and his angels fought against the DRAGON and his angels. The word Michael מיכאל, seems to be compounded of מי mi, who, כ ke, like, and אל El, God; he who is like God; hence by this personage, in the Apocalypse, many understand the Lord Jesus. (Ibid., Chapter 1, v. 9)

MATTHEW HENRY

“… [2.] Here is Michael our prince, the great protector of the church, and the patron of its just but injured cause: The first of the chief princes,Daniel 10:13; Daniel 10:13. Some understand it of a created angel, but an archangel of the highest order, 1 Thessalonians 4:16; Jude 1:9. Others think that Michael the archangel is no other than Christ himself, the angel of the covenant, and the Lord of the angels, he whom Daniel saw in vision, Daniel 10:5; Daniel 10:5. He came to help me (Daniel 10:13; Daniel 10:13); and there is none but he that holds with me in these things,Daniel 10:21; Daniel 10:21. Christ is the church’s prince; angels are not, Hebrews 2:5. He presides in the affairs of the church and effectually provides for its good. He is said to hold with the angels, for it is he that makes them serviceable to the heirs of salvation; and, if he were not on the church’s side, its case were bad. But, says David, and so says the church, The Lord takes my part with those that help me,Psalms 118:7. The Lord is with those that uphold my soul,Psalms 54:4.” (Henry’s Complete Commentary on the Bible, Daniel, Chapter 10)

2. The parties–Michael and his angels on one side, and the dragon and his angels on the other: Christ, the great Angel of the covenant, and his faithful followers; and Satan and all his instruments. This latter party would be much superior in number and outward strength to the other; but the strength of the church lies in having the Lord Jesus for the captain of their salvation. (Ibid., Revelation, Chapter 12)

JOHN WESLEY

Michael — Michael here is commonly supposed to mean Christ…

Michael — Christ alone is the protector of his church, when all the princes of the earth desert or oppose it. (Wesley’s Explanatory Notes, Daniel, Chapter 10)

For the children — The meaning seems to be, as after the death of Antiochus the Jews had some deliverance, so there will be yet a greater deliverance to the people of God, when Michael your prince, the Messiah shall appear for your salvation. (Ibid., Dan., Chapter 12)

Elsewhere, Wesley seemed to contradict himself since he clearly affirmed that Michael was a creature:

And there was war in heaven — Here Satan makes his grand opposition to the kingdom of God; but an end is now put to his accusing the saints before God. The cause goes against him, verses10,11, Revelation 12:10,11and Michael executes the sentence. That Michael is a created angel, appears from his not daring, in disputing with Satan, Jude 9, to bring a railing accusation; but only saying, “The Lord rebuke thee.” And this modesty is implied in his very name; for Michael signifies, “Who is like God?” which implies also his deep reverence toward God, and distance from all self-exaltation. Satan would be like God: the very name of Michael asks, “Who is like God?” Not Satan; not the highest archangel. It is he likewise that is afterward employed to seize, bind, and imprison that proud spirit. (Ibid., Revelation, Chapter 12)

LANGE’S COMMENTARY

Like Wesley, this commentary seemingly contradicts itself since it differentiates Michael from Jesus and refutes those who equate the two:

“… Concerning the theory of the older exegetes and also of Hävernick, which directly identifies Michael with Christ, see Eth. fund principles, No. 1, and also on Daniel 12:1…

“But who is this nameless one, this mysterious being, to whom not even the predicate שַׂר is applied, although doubtless belonging to him, to say nothing of a definite nomen proprium being assigned to him?—Are we, in connection with many older expositors (e.g., Vitringa, C. B. Michaelis, Rambach, Starke, etc.), to identify him with Christ, the “uncreated angel of the Lord,” whom Daniel repeatedly addressed as אְַדֹנַי, and whose description is said to be strikingly similar to that of the “Son of man” in Daniel 7:13 et. seq. (with which compare especially Daniel 10:16; Daniel 10:18), and also to that of Christ in the Apocalypse (Revelation 1:13-18; Revelation 10:1-6)? This opinion is at all events more probable than that of the interpreters who identify Michael instead with Christ (Melancthon, Geier, Jo. Lange, Neubauer, Disput. de Michaele archangelo, Hävernick, etc.); but it is opposed, and the created nature of the angel is implied, by the following considerations:

(1) he describes himself in Daniel 10:11 as a messenger sent from God to bear a Divine message to Daniel (similar to Gabriel in Daniel 8:16 et seq.; Daniel 9:20 et seq.): (2) his difficulty in combating the protecting angels of the world-powers, even necessitating his being supported by other angelic princes, contrasts strongly with the manner in which the former visions describe the triumph of Christ over the world-empires opposed to him; see especially Daniel 2:44 et seq. and Daniel 7:13; Daniel 7:22; Daniel 7:26; (3) the circumstance already noticed in Daniel 10:16, that the address “my lord,” together with the other features of the description which aim at the exaltation and glorifying of this angel, are elsewhere applied to angels who were certainly created; e.g., in Joshua 5:14, to the captain of the Lord’s host; Judges 6:13, to the angel who appeared to Gideon; Judges 13:8, to the angel whom Manoah saw; cf. also Revelation 19:10; Revelation 22:8 et seq. We shall consequently be compelled to assume that the messenger sent from God to Daniel, as here introduced, was an angel proper, and distinct from the Son of God (see Jerome, Theodoret, and a majority of church fathers, on this passage).

But what position of rank and power is to be attributed to him, or—in case he is at once co-ordinated with Michael and Gabriel in these respects (as we have done on Daniel 10:5), and is therefore regarded as an archangel—what particular office and functions are to be assigned to him, is after all a difficult question, and can hardly be answered with full exegetical certainty. The range of the angel’s activity would become too limited if he were identified with the third of the archangels mentioned by name in the Old Test., beside Gabriel and Michael, viz.: with the Raphael of the apocryphal book Tobit, or if he were degraded to the rank of a mere guardian angel over Egypt (Hitzig; see on Daniel 10:20). On the other hand, his authority would become too extensive, and his position too exalted, if he were conceived of as the mighty governor of all earthly nature, the Divinely appointed ruler and spiritual guide of the whole terrestrial world, thus assigning to him a sphere similar to that occupied by the demiurge of the Gnostics, or the “earth-spirit” of Goethe in his prologue to Faust, or to that given by the ingenious natural philosopher, Max Perty (in his work über die mystischen Erscheinungen der menschlichen Natur, 1862), to the geodœmon, the regent of our planet, who is regarded as the spiritual principle that presides over the earth, the human race, and the development of both. To assume such an earth-spirit, which is neither Scriptural nor natural, and which has no support even in the magical and mystical phenomena of human life (cf. the thorough criticism of this hypothesis in L. Giesebrecht’s lecture on Das Wunder in der deutschen Geschichtbeschreibung neuerer Zeit, Stettin, 1868, p. 10 et seq.), would be to disregard the tenor of this section, as certainly as it characterizes the angel as being decidedly supernatural, and at the same time (in Daniel 10:5 et seq.) endows him with external attributes of his rank such as would be but poorly adapted to the position and functions of a telluric planetary spirit. —Accordingly, if any particular explanation whatever of the nature and office of this angel is to be attempted, the opinion of Hofmann which was noticed above, on Daniel 10:5, is to be decidedly preferred to all others (Weissagung und Erfüllung, I. 312 et seq.; Schriftbeweis, I. 287 et seq.). That opinion has also been adopted by Auberlen (Daniel, etc., p. 67), Füller, Baumgarten, Luthardt, Riggenbach (on 2 Thessalonians 2:6), and others. It assumes that the angel in question represents “the good spirit of the heathen world-power,” while the “princes” of Persia and Javan opposed by him and Michael, represent the evil principle which is hostile to God, and which manifests itself in the development of the heathen world-power.

The former is that “power in nature which operates in favor of God’s kingdom throughout the heathen world,” the “good spirit, which is to promote in the heathen world the realization of God’s purpose of salvation;” the latter are powers opposed to God, who seek to cross and neutralize the plans of God and of the good angel, which aim at the salvation of the world. The former is the restraining principle (τὸ κατέχον, 2 Thess., l. c.) which restrains and prevents the ascendancy and prevalence of the height of Satanic wickedness in human history; the latter, on the contrary, endeavor to hinder and retard the progress of the kingdom of God. We regard this view as harmonizing well with the contents of the chapter before us, and can permit a partial departure from it only in so far as (1) we must consider it doubtful whether St. Paul intended to definitely and consciously allude precisely to the angel here described by the word κατέχων or κατέχον; (2) so far as we regard the conflict of the angel with those foes as an actual warfare in the invisible regions of the spirit-world, and not as a mere supplanting in the favor of the king and his court, because of the termini bellici employed in Daniel 10:13; Daniel 10:20 et seq.; (3) so far as we are compelled to regard the foes against whom the angel contended, as being the actual spiritual protectors of the world-kingdoms in question, and as dæmonic powers or Satanic angels, who have entered on a permanent connection with the kingdoms over which they rule, in consequence of which they stand or fall with them (cf. on Daniel 10:13).

The idea of guardian angels, or, more exactly, the idea of certain dæmonic spiritual beings (ἄγγελοι Σατάν, 2 Corinthians 12:7) as being at the head of the antitheistic world-monarchies and as fundamentally opposed to Michael, the prince of the theocracy, is not only countenanced by the leading authorities of the older exegetical tradition (Luther, Melanc, Calov, Geier, C. B. Michaelis, Starke, and in substance also Jerome, Theodoret, and the older Roman Catholic expositors, excepting that they mistake the Satanic evil character of the “princes” of Persia, etc., to a greater or less extent), but it is likewise based on all the passages in both the Old and New-Test. Scriptures, which represent the gods of the heathen world as dæmons, and consequently, the heathen lands or states over which they rule and exercise spiritual authority as being provinces of the kingdom of darkness (cf. the expositors of 1 Corinthians 8:6; 1 Corinthians 10:20 et seq., especially Kling, vol. 7 of the New-Test. part of the Bible-work).15 (Lange’s Commentary on the Holy Scriptures: Critical, Doctrinal and Homiletical, Daniel, Chapter 10)

“… Shall Michael stand up, the great prince, which standeth for the children of thy people. This introduction of Michael as the heavenly ally and protector of Israel (not as the Son of God or the Messiah himself,—as Havernick, in accord with the older exegesis, still supposes), refers back to Daniel 11:1, and also to the preliminaries to the vision as a whole in chap. 10, and especially to Daniel 10:13… Kranichfeld remarks properly, that “the deliverance of Israel (יִמָּלֵט) which is here conceived of as accomplished under the direction of מִיכָאֵל, is coincident in fact with the descriptions of Daniel 7:18; Daniel 7:26 et seq., 14; Daniel 9:24; and the entrance to the Ancient of days (Daniel 7:13) of him who was like the son of man, and who was the spiritually endowed leader of Israel, i.e., the Mashiach, sprung from Israel itself, receives notice as being the final result and attestation of the victorious conflict maintained, under the invisible direction of the angel מִיכָאֵל, against the adversary of the theocracy, who appears in the history of the nations. The absolute identity of the Mashiach with מִיכָאֵל, whose spiritual endowments and official relations were similar to his, does not, however, become manifest from this observation—as Hävernick and others assert—despite the appropriate and well-founded application of the description to the glorified Son of man in person, in the New Test. Apocalypse,—any more than the direct identity of Satan, the adversary of God in the angelic world, with the New Test. antichrist, who stands under his ægis, can be demonstrated…” (Ibid,, Daniel, Chapter 12)

But it then goes on to equate Christ with Michael!

The nature of the conflict is equally remarkable: Michael and his angels (as the attacking party) war with the Dragon; but the Dragon also wars, and his angels (as the resisting party). We have shown elsewhere that the Archangel Michael is an image of Christ victoriously combatant. Christ is an Archangel in His quality of Judge; and He appears as Judge, not only at the end of the world, but also in the preservation of the purity of His Church (Acts 5:1 sqq.; 1 Corinthians 5:1 sqq.). That Christ has His angels also—those that war with Him—not merely in the evening of the world, but from the beginning, is a fact which John has previously intimated in his Gospel (John 1:51); they are the principles and spirits which are with Him absolutely. And so the Dragon also has his angels, his assistants. Since the foundation of Christ’s Church, Christian and Antichristian principles have been warring with each other—primarily, in spiritual, intellectual and ethical forms (John 14:0 [John 15:0?]). (Revelation, Chapter 12)

CHARLES HADDON SPURGEON

The following quotes can be found by using the search engine on the Spurgeon Gems.

“By faith we rise into the conquering place this day. In the heavenlies we triumph, as also in every place. We rejoice in our Lord Jesus Christ, the Michael of the angels, the Redeemer of men. For by Him we see Satan cast out and all the powers of evil hurled from their places of power and eminence.” (“The Blood of the Lamb, The Conquering Weapon”, Sept. 9, 1888)

“You remember how our Lord, who is the true Michael, the only great Archangel, said at the beginning of the preaching of the Gospel, ‘I beheld Satan as lightning falling from Heaven.’” (“Our Lord’s Transcendent Greatness”, Dec. 2, 1866)

“We read that Michael and his angels fought against the dragon and his angels, and the dragon was cast down. The fight is going on every day. Michael is the Lord Jesus, the only Archangel.” (“The Angelic Life”, Nov. 22, 1868)

However, in his exposition of Jude 1:9 Spurgeon joins Wesley and Lange’s Commentary in differentiating the archangel from the risen Christ:

“There is a remarkable passage in Jude, where it speaks of Michael the Archangel contending with the devil about the body of Moses and using no ‘railing accusation.’ Now, this refers to the great Doctrine of angels watching over the bones of the saints. Certainly it tells us that the body of Moses was watched over by a great archangel. The devil thought to disturb that body but Michael contended with him about it. Now would there be a contention about that body if it had been of no value? Would Michael contend for that which was only to be the food of worms? Would he wrestle with the enemy for that which was to be scattered to the four winds of Heaven, never to be united again into a new and goodlier fabric? No. Assuredly not! From this we learn that an angel watches over every tomb. It is no fiction, when on the marble we carve the cherubs with their wings. There are cherubs with outstretched wings over the head of the gravestones of all the righteous. Yes, and where ‘the rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep,’ in some nook overgrown by nettles, there an angel stands night and day to watch each bone and guard each atom, that at the resurrection, those bodies, with more glory than they had on earth, may start up to dwell forever with the Lord! The guardianship of the bodies of the saints by angels proves that they shall rise again from the dead!” (“The Resurrection of the Dead”, Feb. 17, 1856)

CONCLUSION

With the foregoing in perspective, it is important to emphasize the fact that none of these expositors and theologians believed that Christ was a creature. Rather, they all affirmed the Trinity and taught that Christ is an eternal divine Person who is essentially coequal with the Father and the Holy Spirit. As such, they did not hold to the view that Michael was an angelic spirit creature, but was simply another one of the unique names belonging to God the Son, the second Person of the glorious Trinity.

FURTHER READING

Michael’s Contention With Satan

The purpose of this post is to present the various ways in which believers worshiped and glorified the risen Jesus starting from the very first century AD and up until the fourth century. The aim is to provide conclusive proof that the very first Christians (who were primarily Jewish) were the ones that began worshiping the risen Christ as God Almighty who became human, even though he is not the Father or the Holy Spirit but essentially one with them. And the only sound reason that monotheistic Jews would start worshiping a fellow Jew as the unique divine Son of God must be due to Jesus himself claiming to be divine, which was then vindicated by his physical, bodily resurrection to immortality. All emphasis will be mine.

Praying to Christ and calling on his name.

“And as they were stoning Stephen, he prayed, ‘Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.’ And he knelt down and cried with a loud voice, ‘Lord, do not hold this sin against them.’ And when he had said this, he fell asleep.” Acts 7:59-60

“But Anani′as answered, ‘Lord, I have heard from many about this man, how much evil he has done to THY saints at Jerusalem; and here he has authority from the chief priests to bind all who call upon THY name.’ But the Lord said to him, ‘Go, for he is a chosen instrument of mine to carry my name before the Gentiles and kings and the sons of Israel; for I will show him how much he must suffer for the sake of my name.’ So Anani′as departed and entered the house. And laying his hands on him he said, ‘Brother Saul, the Lord Jesus who appeared to you on the road by which you came, has sent me that you may regain your sight and be filled with the Holy Spirit.’ And immediately something like scales fell from his eyes and he regained his sight. Then he rose and was baptized, and took food and was strengthened. Saul Preaches in Damascus For several days he was with the disciples at Damascus. And in the synagogues immediately he proclaimed Jesus, saying, ‘He is the Son of God.’ And all who heard him were amazed, and said, ‘Is not this the man who made havoc in Jerusalem of those who called on this name? And he has come here for this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests.’” Acts 9:13-21  

“And one Anani′as, a devout man according to the law, well spoken of by all the Jews who lived there, came to me, and standing by me said to me, ‘Brother Saul, receive your sight.’ And in that very hour I received my sight and saw him. And he said, ‘The God of our fathers appointed you to know his will, to see the Just One and to hear a voice from his mouth; for you will be a witness for him to all men of what you have seen and heard. And now why do you wait? Rise and be baptized, and wash away your sins, calling on his name.’ When I had returned to Jerusalem and was praying in the temple, I fell into a trance and saw him saying to me, ‘Make haste and get quickly out of Jerusalem, because they will not accept your testimony about me.’ And I said, ‘Lord, they themselves know that in every synagogue I imprisoned and beat those who believed in thee. And when the blood of Stephen thy witness was shed, I also was standing by and approving, and keeping the garments of those who killed him.’ And he said to me, ‘Depart; for I will send you far away to the Gentiles.’”” Acts 22:12-21

“because, if you confess with your lips that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For man believes with his heart and so is justified, and he confesses with his lips and so is saved. The scripture says, ‘No one who believes in him will be put to shame.’ For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; the same Lord is Lord of all and bestows his riches upon all who call upon him. For, ‘every one who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved.’” Romans 10:9-13 – Cf. 2 Cor. 8:9; Eph. 3:8

“To the church of God which is at Corinth, to those sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints together with all those who in every place call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, both their Lord and ours: Grace to you and peace from God our Father AND the Lord Jesus Christ.” 1 Corinthians 1:2-3

“If any one has no love for the Lord, let him be accursed. Our Lord, come (Maranatha)! The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you.” 1 Corinthians 16:22-23

“And to keep me from being too elated by the abundance of revelations, a thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan, to harass me, to keep me from being too elated. Three times I besought the Lord about this, that it should leave me; but he said to me, ‘My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.” I will all the more gladly boast of my weaknesses, that the power of Christ may rest upon me. For the sake of Christ, then, I am content with weaknesses, insults, hardships, persecutions, and calamities; for when I am weak, then I am strong.” 2 Corinthians 12:7-10  

“Now may our God and Father himself, and our Lord Jesus, direct our way to you; 12 and may the Lord make you increase and abound in love to one another and to all men, as we do to you, so that he may establish your hearts unblamable in holiness before our God and Father, at the coming of our Lord Jesus with all his saints.” 1 Thessalonians 3:11-13

“Now may our Lord Jesus Christ himself, and God our Father, who loved us and gave us eternal comfort and good hope through grace, comfort your hearts and establish them in every good work and word.” 2 Thessalonians 2:16-17

“Grace, mercy, and peace will be with us, from God the Father and FROM Jesus Christ the Father’s Son, in truth and love.” 2 John 1:3

“He who testifies to these things says, ‘Surely I am coming soon.’ Amen. Come, Lord Jesus! 21 The grace of the Lord Jesus be with all the saints. Amen.” Revelation 22:20-21

Hymns, songs and doxologies offered through and to Christ.

“to them belong the patriarchs, and of their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ, who is God over all, blessed for ever. Amen.” Romans 9:5

“Have this mind among yourselves, which was in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God,^[a] did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even death on a cross. Therefore God has highly exalted him and bestowed on him the name which is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.” Philippians 2:5-11 – Cf. Isa. 45:23

a. 2.6 in the form of God: The Greek shows that divine attributes, and therefore nature, are implied here. It is not the divine nature he set no store by, but equality of treatment and recognition of his divinity.

“He has delivered us from the dominion of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of his beloved Son, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins. He is the image of the invisible God, the first-born^[c] of all creation; for in him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or authorities—all things were created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together. He is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning, the first-born from the dead, that in everything he might be pre-eminent. For in him all the fulness of God was pleased to dwell, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross.” Colossians 1:13-20

c. 1.15 first-born: Born of the Father before all ages. The reference here is to the divine person of the Word; see verse 16.

“And do not get drunk with wine, for that is debauchery; but be filled with the Spirit, addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody to the Lord with all your heart, always and for everything giving thanks in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ to God the Father. Be subject to one another out of reverence for Christ.” Ephesians 5:18-21

“I charge you to keep the commandment unstained and free from reproach until the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ; and this will be made manifest at the proper time by the blessed and ONLY Sovereign, the King of kings and Lord of lords, who ALONE has immortality and dwells in unapproachable light, whom no man has ever seen or can see. To him be honor and eternal dominion. Amen.” 1 Timothy 6:14-16

“I charge you in the presence of God and of Christ Jesus who is to judge the living and the dead, and by HIS appearing and HIS kingdom… Henceforth there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, will award to me on that Day, and not only to me but also to all who have loved HIS appearing… At my first defense no one took my part; all deserted me. May it not be charged against them! But the Lord stood by me and gave me strength to proclaim the word fully, that all the Gentiles might hear it. So I was rescued from the lion’s mouth. The Lord will rescue me from every evil and save me for HIS heavenly kingdom. To him be the glory for ever and ever. Amen.” 2 Timothy 4:1, 8, 16-18  

“Now may the God of peace who brought again from the dead our Lord Jesus, the great shepherd of the sheep, by the blood of the eternal covenant, equip you with everything good that you may do his will, working in you that which is pleasing in his sight, through Jesus Christ; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen. Read full chapter Footnotes Hebrews 13:20-21

“whoever speaks, as one who utters oracles of God; whoever renders service, as one who renders it by the strength which God supplies; in order that in everything God may be glorified through Jesus Christ. To him belong glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen.” 1 Peter 4:11

“And after you have suffered a little while, the God of all grace, who has called you to his eternal glory in Christ, will himself restore, establish, and strengthen you. To him be the dominion for ever and ever. Amen.” 1 Peter 5:10-11

“But grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To him be the glory both now and to the day of eternity. Amen.” 2 Peter 3:18

“to the only God, our Savior through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, dominion, and authority, before all time and now and for ever. Amen.” Jude 1:25

“and from Jesus Christ the faithful witness, the first-born of the dead, and the ruler of kings on earth. To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood and made us a kingdom, priests to his God and Father, to him be glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen.” Revelation 1:5-6  

“And when he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell down before the Lamb, each holding a harp, and with golden bowls full of incense, which are the prayers of the saints; and they sang a new song, saying, ‘Worthy art thou to take the scroll and to open its seals, for thou wast slain and by thy blood didst ransom men for God from every tribe and tongue and people and nation, and hast made them a kingdom and priests to our God, and they shall reign on earth.’ Then I looked, and I heard around the throne and the living creatures and the elders the voice of many angels, numbering myriads of myriads and thousands of thousands, saying with a loud voice, ‘Worthy is the Lamb who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing!’ And I heard EVERY CREATURE in heaven and on earth and under the earth and in the sea, and ALL THEREIN, saying, ‘To him who sits upon the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honor and glory and might for ever and ever!’ And the four living creatures said, ‘Amen!’ and the elders fell down and worshiped.” Revelation 5:8-14

“After this I looked, and behold, a great multitude which no man could number, from every nation, from all tribes and peoples and tongues, standing before the throne and before the Lamb, clothed in white robes, with palm branches in their hands, 10 and crying out with a loud voice, ‘Salvation belongs to our God who sits upon the throne, and to the Lamb!’ And all the angels stood round the throne and round the elders and the four living creatures, and they fell on their faces before the throne and worshiped God, saying, ‘Amen! Blessing and glory and wisdom and thanksgiving and honor and power and might be to our God for ever and ever! Amen.’ Then one of the elders addressed me, saying, ‘Who are these, clothed in white robes, and whence have they come?’ I said to him, ‘Sir, you know.’ And he said to me, ‘These are they who have come out of the great tribulation; they have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. Therefore are they before the throne of God, and serve him day and night within his temple; and he who sits upon the throne will shelter them with his presence. They shall hunger no more, neither thirst any more; the sun shall not strike them, nor any scorching heat. For the Lamb in the midst of the throne will be their shepherd, and he will guide them to springs of living water; and God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.’” Revelation 7:9-17  

“And they sing the song of Moses, the servant of God, and the song of the Lamb, saying, ‘Great and wonderful are thy deeds, O Lord God the Almighty! Just and true are thy ways, O King of the ages! Who shall not fear and glorify thy name, O Lord? For thou alone art holy. All nations shall come and worship thee, for thy judgments have been revealed.’” Revelation 15:3-4

Chapter 9. The Thanksgiving (Eucharist)

Now concerning the Thanksgiving (Eucharist), thus give thanks. First, concerning the cup: We thank you, our Father, for the holy vine of David Your servant, which You made known to us through Jesus Your Servant; to You be the glory forever. And concerning the broken bread: We thank You, our Father, for the life and knowledge which You made known to us through Jesus Your Servant; to You be the glory forever. Even as this broken bread was scattered over the hills, and was gathered together and became one, so let Your Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Your kingdom; for Yours is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ forever. But let no one eat or drink of your Thanksgiving (Eucharist), but they who have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, Give not that which is holy to the dogs. Matthew 7:6

Chapter 10. Prayer After Communion

But after you are filled, thus give thanks: We thank You, holy Father, for Your holy name which You caused to tabernacle in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality, which You made known to us through Jesus Your Servant; to You be the glory forever. You, Master almighty, created all things for Your name’s sake; You gave food and drink to men for enjoyment, that they might give thanks to You; but to us You freely gave spiritual food and drink and life eternal through Your Servant. Before all things we thank You that You are mighty; to You be the glory forever. Remember, Lord, Your Church, to deliver it from all evil and to make it perfect in Your love, and gather it from the four winds, sanctified for Your kingdom which You have prepared for it; for Yours is the power and the glory forever. Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maran atha. Amen. But permit the prophets to make Thanksgiving as much as they desire. (The Didache )

Chapter 12. The cross of Christ frequently announced in the Old Testament

In like manner He points to the cross of Christ in another prophet, who says, And when shall these things be accomplished? And the Lord says, When a tree shall be bent down, and again arise, and when blood shall flow out of wood. Here again you have an intimation concerning the cross, and Him who should be crucified. Yet again He speaks of this in Moses, when Israel was attacked by strangers. And that He might remind them, when assailed, that it was on account of their sins they were delivered to death, the Spirit speaks to the heart of Moses, that he should make a figure of the cross, and of Him about to suffer thereon; for unless they put their trust in Him, they shall be overcome forever. Moses therefore placed one weapon above another in the midst of the hill, and standing upon it, so as to be higher than all the people, he stretched forth his hands, and thus again Israel acquired the mastery. But when again he let down his hands, they were again destroyed. For what reason? That they might know that they could not be saved unless they put their trust in Him. And in another prophet He declares, All day long I have stretched forth My hands to an unbelieving people, and one that gainsays My righteous way. Isaiah 65:2 And again Moses makes a type of Jesus, [signifying] that it was necessary for Him to suffer, [and also] that He would be the author of life [to others], whom they believed to have destroyed on the cross when Israel was failing. For since transgression was committed by Eve through means of the serpent, [the Lord] brought it to pass that every [kind of] serpents bit them, and they died, Numbers 21:6-9; John 3:14-18 that He might convince them, that on account of their transgression they were given over to the straits of death. Moreover Moses, when he commanded, You shall not have any graven or molten [image] for your God, did so that he might reveal a type of Jesus. Moses then makes a brazen serpent, and places it upon a beam, and by proclamation assembles the people. When, therefore, they had come together, they besought Moses that he would offer sacrifice in their behalf, and pray for their recovery. And Moses spoke unto them, saying, When any one of you is bitten, let him come to the serpent placed on the pole; and let him hope and believe, that even though dead, it is able to give him life, and immediately he shall be restored. Numbers 21:9 And they did so. You have in this also [an indication of] the glory of Jesus; for in Him and to Him are all things. Colossians 1:16 What, again, says Moses to Jesus (Joshua) the son of Nave, when he gave him this name, as being a prophet, with this view only, that all the people might hear that the Father would reveal all things concerning His Son Jesus to the son of Nave? This name then being given him when he sent him to spy out the land, he said, Take a book into your hands, and write what the Lord declares, that the Son of God will in the last days cut off from the roots all the house of Amalek. Exodus 17:14 Behold again: Jesus who was manifested, both by type and in the flesh, 1 Timothy 3:16 is not the Son of man, but the Son of God. Since, therefore, they were to say that Christ was the son of David, fearing and understanding the error of the wicked, he says, The Lord said to my Lord, Sit at My right hand, until I make Your enemies Your footstool. And again, thus says Isaiah, The Lord said to Christ, my Lord, whose right hand I have holden, that the nations should yield obedience before Him; and I will break in pieces the strength of kings. Isaiah 45:1 Behold how David calls Him Lord and the Son of God. (Epistle of Barnabas)

Chapter 58. Submission the Precursor of Salvation.

Let us, therefore, flee from the warning threats pronounced by Wisdom on the disobedient, and yield submission to His all-holy and glorious name, that we may stay our trust upon the most hallowed name of His majesty. Receive our counsel, and you shall be without repentance. For, as God lives, and as the Lord Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost live — both the faith and hope of the elect, he who in lowliness of mind, with instant gentleness, and without repentance has observed the ordinances and appointments given by God— the same shall obtain a place and name in the number of those who are being saved through Jesus Christ, through whom is glory to Him for ever and ever. Amen…

Chapter 61. Prayer Continued — For Rulers and Governors. Conclusion.

… O Thou, who only has power to do these things and more abundant good with us, we praise You through the High Priest and Guardian of our souls Jesus Christ, through whom be glory and majesty to You both now and from generation to generation and for evermore. Amen…

Chapter 64. Blessings Sought for All that Call Upon God.

May God, who sees all things, and who is the Ruler of all spirits and the Lord of all flesh — who chose our Lord Jesus Christ and us through Him to be a peculiar Titus 2:14 people — grant to every soul that calls upon His glorious and holy name, faith, fear, peace, patience, long-suffering, self-control, purity, and sobriety, to the well-pleasing of His name, through our High Priest and Protector, Jesus Christ, by whom be to Him glory, and majesty, and power, and honour, both now and for evermore. Amen.

Chapter 65. The Corinthians are Exhorted Speedily to Send Back Word that Peace Has Been Restored. The Benediction.

… The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you, and with all everywhere that are the called of God through Him, by whom be to Him glory, honour, power, majesty, and eternal dominion, from everlasting to everlasting. Amen. (Clement of Rome, First Epistle)

Chapter 4. The same continued

Wherefore it is fitting that you should run together in accordance with the will of your bishop, which thing also you do. For your justly renowned presbytery, worthy of God, is fitted as exactly to the bishop as the strings are to the harp. Therefore in your concord and harmonious love, Jesus Christ is sung. And man by man, become a choir, that being harmonious in love, and taking up the song of God in unison, you may with one voice sing to the Father through Jesus Christ, so that He may both hear you, and perceive by your works that you are indeed the members of His Son. It is profitable, therefore, that you should live in an unblameable unity, that thus you may always enjoy communion with God. (Ignatius, Epistle to the Ephesians)

Chapter 1. Thanks to God for your faith

I Glorify God, even Jesus Christ, who has given you such wisdom. For I have observed that you are perfected in an immoveable faith, as if you were nailed to the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, both in the flesh and in the spirit, and are established in love through the blood of Christ, being fully persuaded with respect to our Lord, that He was truly of the seed of David according to the flesh, Romans 1:3 and the Son of God according to the will and power of God; that He was truly born of a virgin, was baptized by John, in order that all righteousness might be fulfilled Matthew 3:15 by Him; and was truly, under Pontius Pilate and Herod the tetrarch, nailed [to the cross] for us in His flesh. Of this fruit we are by His divinely-blessed passion, that He might set up a standard Isaiah 5:26, Isaiah 49:22 for all ages, through His resurrection, to all His holy and faithful [followers], whether among Jews or Gentiles, in the one body of His Church. (Ignatius, Epistle to the Smyrnæans)

Chapter 14. The prayer of Polycarp

They did not nail him then, but simply bound him. And he, placing his hands behind him, and being bound like a distinguished ram [taken] out of a great flock for sacrifice, and prepared to be an acceptable burnt-offering unto God, looked up to heaven, and said,

O Lord God Almighty, the Father of your beloved and blessed Son Jesus Christ, by whom we have received the knowledge of You, the God of angels and powers, and of every creature, and of the whole race of the righteous who live before you, I give You thanks that You have counted me, worthy of this day and this hour, that I should have a part in the number of Your martyrs, in the cup of your Christ, to the resurrection of eternal life, both of soul and body, through the incorruption [imparted] by the Holy Ghost. Among whom may I be accepted this day before You as a fat and acceptable sacrifice, according as You, the ever-truthful God, have foreordained, have revealed beforehand to me, and now have fulfilled. Wherefore also I praise You for all things, I bless You, I glorify You, along with the everlasting and heavenly Jesus Christ, Your beloved Son, with whom, to You, and the Holy Ghost, be glory both now and to all coming ages. Amen…

Chapter 22. Salutation

We wish you, brethren, all happiness, while you walk according to the doctrine of the Gospel of Jesus Christ; with whom be glory to God the Father and the Holy Spirit, for the salvation of His holy elect, after whose example the blessed Polycarp suffered, following in whose steps may we too be found in the kingdom of Jesus Christ!

These things Caius transcribed from the copy of Irenæus (who was a disciple of Polycarp), having himself been intimate with Irenæus. And I Socrates transcribed them at Corinth from the copy of Caius. Grace be with you all.

And I again, Pionius, wrote them from the previously written copy, having carefully searched into them, and the blessed Polycarp having manifested them to me through a revelation, even as I shall show in what follows. I have collected these things, when they had almost faded away through the lapse of time, that the Lord Jesus Christ may also gather me along with His elect into His heavenly kingdom, to whom, with the Father and the Holy Spirit, be glory for ever and ever. Amen. (The Martyrdom of Polycarp)

Chapter 65. Administration of the sacraments

But we, after we have thus washed him who has been convinced and has assented to our teaching, bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized [illuminated] person, and for all others in every place, that we may be counted worthy, now that we have learned the truth, by our works also to be found good citizens and keepers of the commandments, so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. This word Amen answers in the Hebrew language to γένοιτο [so be it]. And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion. (Justin Martyr, First Apology)

Thus, then, suffered the first martyr of God, and apostle, and virgin, Thecla, who came from Iconium at eighteen years old; and with the journeying, and the going round, and the retirement in the mountain, she lived other seventy-two years. And when the Lord took her, she was ninety years old. And thus is her consummation. And her holy commemoration is on the twenty-fourth of the month of September, to the glory of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen. (Acts of Paul and Thecla)

4. And what they say might be plausible, if first of all the Divine Scriptures did not contradict them. And there are writings of certain brethren older than the times of Victor, which they wrote in behalf of the truth against the heathen, and against the heresies which existed in their day. I refer to Justin and Miltiades and Tatian and Clement and many others, in all of whose works CHRIST IS SPOKEN OF AS GOD.

5. For who does not know the works of Irenæus and of Melito and of others which teach THAT CHRIST IS GOD AND MAN? And how many psalms and hymns, written by the faithful brethren from the beginning, celebrate Christ the Word of God, speaking of him as Divine. (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, Book V)

10. and stops the psalms to our Lord Jesus Christ, as being the modern productions of modern men, and trains women to sing psalms to himself in the midst of the church on the great day of the passover, which any one might shudder to hear, and persuades the bishops and presbyters of the neighboring districts and cities who fawn upon him, to advance the same ideas in their discourses to the people.

11. For to anticipate something of what we shall presently write, he is unwilling to acknowledge that the Son of God has come down from heaven. And this is not a mere assertion, but it is abundantly proved from the records which we have sent you; and not least where he says ‘Jesus Christ is from below.’ But those singing to him and extolling him among the people say that their impious teacher has come down an angel from heaven. And he does not forbid such things; but the arrogant man is even present when they are uttered. (Eusebius, Book VII)

It is a rule, Sir, which I inviolably observe, to refer myself to you in all my doubts; for who is more capable of guiding my uncertainty or informing my ignorance? Having never been present at any trials of the Christians, I am unacquainted with the method and limits to be observed either in examining or punishing them. Whether any difference is to be made on account of age, or no distinction allowed between the youngest and the adult; whether repentance admits to a pardon, or if a man has been once a Christian it avails him nothing to recant; whether the mere profession of Christianity, albeit without crimes, or only the crimes associated therewith are punishable in all these points I am greatly doubtful.

In the meanwhile, the method I have observed towards those who have been denounced to me as Christians is this: I interrogated them whether they were Christians; if they confessed it I repeated the question twice again, adding the threat of capital punishment; if they still persevered, I ordered them to be executed. For whatever the nature of their creed might be, I could at least feel no doubt that contumacy and inflexible obstinacy deserved chastisement. There were others also possessed with the same infatuation, but being citizens of Rome, I directed them to be carried thither.

These accusations spread (as is usually the case) from the mere fact of the matter being investigated and several forms of the mischief came to light. A placard was put up, without any signature, accusing a large number of persons by name. Those who denied they were, or had ever been, Christians, who repeated after me an invocation to the Gods, and offered adoration, with wine and frankincense, to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for that purpose, together with those of the Gods, and who finally cursed Christ none of which acts, it is said, those who are really Christians can be forced into performing these I thought it proper to discharge. Others who were named by that informer at first confessed themselves Christians, and then denied it; true, they had been of that persuasion but they had quitted it, some three years, others many years, and a few as much as twenty‑five years ago. They all worshipped your statue and the images of the Gods, and cursed Christ.

They affirmed, however, the whole of their guilt, or their error, was, that they were in the habit of meeting on a certain fixed day before it was light, when they sang in alternate verses a hymn to Christ, as to a god, and bound themselves by a solemn oath, not to any wicked deeds, but never to commit any fraud, theft or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it was their custom to separate, and then reassemble to partake of food but food of an ordinary and innocent kind. Even this practice, however, they had abandoned after the publication of my edict, by which, according to your orders, I had forbidden political associations. I judged it so much the more necessary to extract the real truth, with the assistance of torture, from two female slaves, who were styled deaconesses: but I could discover nothing more than depraved and excessive superstition.

I therefore adjourned the proceedings, and betook myself at once to your counsel. For the matter seemed to me well worth referring to you, especially considering the numbers endangered. Persons of all ranks and ages, and of both sexes are, and will be, involved in the prosecution. For this contagious superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread through the villages and rural districts; it seems possible, however, to check and cure it. ‘Tis certain at least that the temples, which had been almost deserted, begin now to be frequented; and the sacred festivals, after a long intermission, are again revived; while there is a general demand for sacrificial animals, which for some time past have met with but few purchasers. From hence it is easy to imagine what multitudes may be reclaimed from this error, if a door be left open to repentance. (Pliny the Younger, the Governor of Bithynia (c. A.D. 62-113), Letter to the emperor Trajan (A.D. 111), Letters 10.96)

Baptism for Christ’s sake.

“And Peter said to them, ‘Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins; and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Spirit.’” Acts 2:38

“But when they believed Philip as he preached good news about the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women… for it had not yet fallen on any of them, but they had only been baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus.” Acts 8:12, 16

“And he commanded them to be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. Then they asked him to remain for some days.” Acts 10:48

“On hearing this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus.” Acts 19:5

Cultic meals offered to Christ.

“Therefore, my beloved, shun the worship of idols. I speak as to sensible men; judge for yourselves what I say. The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a participation in the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread. Consider the practice of Israel; are not those who eat the sacrifices partners in the altar? What do I imply then? That food offered to idols is anything, or that an idol is anything? No, I imply that what pagans sacrifice they offer to demons and not to God. I do not want you to be partners with demons. You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons. You cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons. Shall we provoke the Lord to jealousy? Are we stronger than he?” 1 Corinthians 10:14-22  

“For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, ‘This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.’ In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, ‘This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.’ For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes. Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord. Let a man examine himself, and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For any one who eats and drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment upon himself. That is why many of you are weak and ill, and some have died. But if we judged ourselves truly, we should not be judged. But when we are judged by the Lord, we are chastened so that we may not be condemned along with the world. So then, my brethren, when you come together to eat, wait for one another—if any one is hungry, let him eat at home—lest you come together to be condemned. About the other things I will give directions when I come.” 1 Corinthians 11:23-34

Performing miracles in Christ’s name.

“Now Peter and John were going up to the temple at the hour of prayer, the ninth hour. And a man lame from birth was being carried, whom they laid daily at that gate of the temple which is called Beautiful to ask alms of those who entered the temple. 3 Seeing Peter and John about to go into the temple, he asked for alms. And Peter directed his gaze at him, with John, and said, ‘Look at us.’ And he fixed his attention upon them, expecting to receive something from them. But Peter said, “I have no silver and gold, but I give you what I have; in the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, walk.’ And he took him by the right hand and raised him up; and immediately his feet and ankles were made strong. And leaping up he stood and walked and entered the temple with them, walking and leaping and praising God. And all the people saw him walking and praising God, and recognized him as the one who sat for alms at the Beautiful Gate of the temple; and they were filled with wonder and amazement at what had happened to him. While he clung to Peter and John, all the people ran together to them in the portico called Solomon’s, astounded. And when Peter saw it he addressed the people, ‘Men of Israel, why do you wonder at this, or why do you stare at us, as though by our own power or piety we had made him walk? The God of Abraham and of Isaac and of Jacob, the God of our fathers, glorified his servant Jesus, whom you delivered up and denied in the presence of Pilate, when he had decided to release him. But you denied the Holy and Righteous One, and asked for a murderer to be granted to you, and killed the Author of life, whom God raised from the dead. To this we are witnesses. And his name, by faith in his name, has made this man strong whom you see and know; and the faith which is through Jesus has given the man this perfect health in the presence of you all.” Acts 3:1-16  

“On the morrow their rulers and elders and scribes were gathered together in Jerusalem, with Annas the high priest and Ca′iaphas and John and Alexander, and all who were of the high-priestly family. And when they had set them in the midst, they inquired, ‘By what power or by what name did you do this?’ Then Peter, filled with the Holy Spirit, said to them, ‘Rulers of the people and elders, if we are being examined today concerning a good deed done to a cripple, by what means this man has been healed, be it known to you all, and to all the people of Israel, that by the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, whom you crucified, whom God raised from the dead, by him this man is standing before you well. This is the stone which was rejected by you builders, but which has become the head of the corner. And there is salvation in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved.’ Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were uneducated, common men, they wondered; and they recognized that they had been with Jesus. But seeing the man that had been healed standing beside them, they had nothing to say in opposition.” Acts 4:5-14

“There he found a man named Aene′as, who had been bedridden for eight years and was paralyzed. And Peter said to him, ‘Aene′as, Jesus Christ heals you; rise and make your bed.’ And immediately he rose. And all the residents of Lydda and Sharon saw him, and they turned to the Lord.” Acts 9:33-35

“As we were going to the place of prayer, we were met by a slave girl who had a spirit of divination and brought her owners much gain by soothsaying. She followed Paul and us, crying, ‘These men are servants of the Most High God, who proclaim to you the way of salvation.’ And this she did for many days. But Paul was annoyed, and turned and said to the spirit, ‘I charge you in the name of Jesus Christ to come out of her.’ And it came out that very hour.” Acts 16:16-18

“And he entered the synagogue and for three months spoke boldly, arguing and pleading about the kingdom of God; but when some were stubborn and disbelieved, speaking evil of the Way before the congregation, he withdrew from them, taking the disciples with him, and argued daily in the hall of Tyran′nus. This continued for two years, so that all the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks. And God did extraordinary miracles by the hands of Paul, so that handkerchiefs or aprons were carried away from his body to the sick, and diseases left them and the evil spirits came out of them. Then some of the itinerant Jewish exorcists undertook to pronounce the name of the Lord Jesus over those who had evil spirits, saying, “I adjure you by the Jesus whom Paul preaches.’ Seven sons of a Jewish high priest named Sceva were doing this. But the evil spirit answered them, ‘Jesus I know, and Paul I know; but who are you?’ And the man in whom the evil spirit was leaped on them, mastered all of them, and overpowered them, so that they fled out of that house naked and wounded. And this became known to all residents of Ephesus, both Jews and Greeks; and fear fell upon them all; and the name of the Lord Jesus was extolled. Many also of those who were now believers came, confessing and divulging their practices. And a number of those who practiced magic arts brought their books together and burned them in the sight of all; and they counted the value of them and found it came to fifty thousand. So the word of the Lord grew and prevailed mightily.” Acts 19:8-20

CONCLUSION

The aforementioned list highlighting the various ways in which Jesus’ own followers and Christians throughout the first three hundred years of the faith worshiped the risen Lord is clear evidence that the belief in Christ’s eternal and essential Deity wasn’t a later invention or corruption. The historical data conclusively proves that worship of Christ as God Almighty Incarnate began with and among the very eyewitnesses and disciples of Jesus himself.

As New Testament scholar and professor Michael F. Bird puts it:

(c) The devotional patterns of the early church signified the inclusion of Jesus within divine worship… Taken collectively, what is offered here is more than obeisance to a king, more than panegyric poetry to a patron, more than homage to a hero; it exceeds veneration of a principal agent, and is proper worship to A TRUE GOD.

(d) The worship of Jesus in EARLIEST Christian circles did not comprise a new cultus to an independent deity, but was always part of the worship of the one God of Israel. Jesus did not displace the cult of Yahweh, but was the instrument or means of worship, praise, thanksgiving, and glory offered to Israel’s God. Hence the ubiquitous language of worship to God “through Jesus” in prayers, thanksgivings, benedictions, and doxologies (i.e., no Jesus-olatry where Jesus substitutes for or surpasses God the Father)! Yet the inclusion of Jesus in the orbit of divine sovereignty, symbolized by his position beside God the Father upon the throne, entailed his fitness to receive divine worship, not in competition to God, but in association with the one God. Thus, the worship of God through Jesus VERY QUICKLY began to entail the worship of Jesus AS GOD as well. (Bird, Jesus Among the Gods: Early Christology in the Greo-Roman World [Baylor University Press, 2022], pp. 248-249; emphasis mine)

³⁴⁰ [Richard] Bauckham (Jesus and the God of Israel, 132) says about the doxologies: “The attribution of doxologies to Christ is particularly clear evidence of unambiguously divine worship i.e., worship that is appropriately offered ONLY to the one God. Moreover, an unbroken tradition of use of Christological doxologies can be traced from the New Testament THROUGH THE WHOLE ANTE-NICENE PERIOD.” (Ibid., p. 248; emphasis mine)

All scriptural references taken from the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition (RSVCE).

FURTHER READING

The New Testament on the Worship given to Jesus: Its Significance and Implications for the Deity of Christ

All the Nations will serve Him 

Jesus and Latreuo 

Does Jesus Receive Latreuo?

LET EVERY THING THAT HAS BREATH PRAISE JAH JESUS!

Seeing that the fate of Judas often comes up in discussions with Muhammadans as a means of discrediting the Holy Bible, I post the response of the late Dr. Gleason L. Archer for the benefit of Bible believers. I also include his response to another specific aspect related to the story of Judas.

How did Judas Iscariot die?

Matthew 27:3-10 records Judas’s remorse at having betrayed Jesus to the Jewish authorities. Judas first attempted to return the thirty shekels that they had paid him for leading the temple posse to Gethsemane, where Jesus was arrested. But the priest and temple officials refused to take the money back, since it was the price of blood and therefore unsuitable as an offering to God. Judas therefore cast the money pouch onto the floor of the temple treasury, departed from the city, and “hanged himself” (apenxato–the aorist middle third person singular from apancho, a verb used with that specific meaning ever since the fifth century B.C). This establishes the fact that Judas fastened a noose around his neck and jumped from the branch to which the other end of the rope was attached.

In Acts 1:18 the apostle Peter reminds the other disciples of Judas’s shameful end and the gap he left in the ranks of the Twelve, which called for another disciple to take his place. Peter relates the following: “He therefore acquired a plot of land [chorion] from the reward of wrongdoing.” (This could mean either that Judas had already contracted with the owner of the field that he originally had wanted to buy with the betrayal money; or-as is far more likely in this context–Peter was speaking ironically, stating that Judas acquired a piece of real estate all right, but it was only a burial plot [chorion could cover either concept], namely, the one on which his lifeless body fell.

Acts 1:18 goes on to state: “And he, falling headlong, burst asunder, and all of his inwards gushed out.” This indicates that the tree from which Judas suspended himself overhung a precipice. If the branch from which he had hung himself was dead and dry-and there are many trees that match this description even to this day on the brink of the canyon that tradition identifies as the place where Judas died–it would take only one strong gust of wind to yank the heavy corpse and split the branch to which it was attached and plunge both with great force into the bottom of the chasm below. There is indication that a strong wind arose at the hour Christ died and ripped the great curtain inside the temple from top to bottom (Matt. 27:51). This was accompanied by a rock-splitting earthquake and undoubtedly also by a thunderstorm, which normally follows a prolonged period of cloud gathering and darkness (Matt. 27:45). Conditions were right for what had started out as a mere suicide by hanging to turn into a grisly mutilation of the corpse as the branch gave way to the force of the wind and was hurtled down to the bottom.

Why does Matthew 27:9 attribute to Jeremiah a prophecy from Zechariah?

Matthew 27:9-10 describes the purchase of Potter’s Field with Judas Iscariot’s money as fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy: “Then that which was spoken through Jeremiah the prophet was fulfilled, saying, `And they took the thirty pieces of silver, the price of one whose price had been set by the sons of Israel; and they gave them for the Potter’s Field, as the Lord directed me” (NASB). The remarkable thing about this quotation is that the greater portion of it is actually from Zechariah 11:12-13, which reads as follows: “And I said to them, `If it is good in your sight, give me my wages; but if not, never mind!’ So they weighed out thirty shekels of silver as my wages. Then Yahweh said to me, `Throw it to the potter, that magnificent price at which I was valued by them’. So I took the thirty shekels of silver and threw them to the potter in the house of Yahweh.” There are significant differences between the Zechariah passage and the quotation in Matthew, which has the prophet paying out–or least giving–the purchase money, and has him turning over the money for a field rather than giving it to the potter personally. Yet the whole point of the quotation in Matthew is directed toward the purchase of the field. The Zechariah passage says nothing at all about purchasing a field; indeed, it does not even mention a field at all.

But as we turn to Jeremiah 32:6-9, we find the prophet purchasing a field in Anathoth for a certain number of shekels. Jeremiah 18:2 describes the prophet as watching a potter fashioning earthenware vessels in his house. Jeremiah 19:2 indicates that there was a potter near the temple, having his workshop in the Valley of Hinnom. Jeremiah 19:11 reads: “Thus says Yahweh of hosts: `Even so I will break this people and this city as one breaks a potter’s vessel, that cannot be made whole again; and they shall bury them in Tophet.'” It would seem, therefore, that Zechariah’s casting of his purchase money to the potter dated back to the symbolic actions of Jeremiah. Yet it is only Jeremiah that mentions the “field” of the potter–which is the principal point of Matthew’s quotation. Matthew is therefore combining and summarizing elements of prophetic symbolism both from Zechariah and from Jeremiah. But since Jeremiah is the more prominent of the two prophets, he mentions Jeremiah’s name by preference to that of the minor prophet.

A similar procedure is followed by Mark 1:2-3, which attributes only to Isaiah a combined quotation from Malachi 3:1 and Isaiah 40:3. In that case also, only the more famous of the two prophets is mentioned by name. Since that was the normal literary practice of the first century A.D., when the Gospels were written, the authors can scarcely be faulted for not following the modern practice of precise identification and footnoting (which could never have become feasible until after the transition had been made from the scroll to the codex and the invention of the printing press). (Archer, Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties [Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, MI 1982], pp. 349-350)

The following Christian writer and apologist shows why this is a plausible scenario, even though he prefers another explanation:

The standard explanation given by harmonists is that Judas hanged himself, and then his body fell and broke open.

This has some promise: Judas hanged himself on Passover and before a Sabbath, and no Jew was going to touch the hanging corpse (touching a dead body caused defilement; it would have been work to take it down on the Sabbath; added to that, death by hanging was especially a disgrace; and hoisting a dead body isn’t an attractive vocation if it isn’t on your property), so it is safe to assume that Judas hanged himself and that the branch or rope eventually broke.

Polhill in his Acts commentary [92n] notes that the phrase translated “becoming headlong” (prenes genomenos — translated as “falling headlong” in the KJV, but literally being “becoming headlong” as shown in Green’s Interlinear translation, 366) is a mere transcription error away from being “becoming swollen” (presthes genomenos). The latter may well be what was originally written, and as such might describe Judas’ body swelling up after hanging for a while. This reading is found in later Syriac, Georgian and Armenian mss., though perhaps as an attempt at textual criticism of the sort we are doing.

Skeptics do regularly scoff at the suggestion that such a combination of events could happen, and yet be reported differently, but Eddy and Boyd in The Jesus Legend have discovered an almost exactly analogous case involving the lynching of two brothers in 1881. [424] Two different witness accounts indicated that the brothers were hanged from two different places: a railroad crossing, and a pine tree. Historians would have concluded that there was a contradiction until researchers found photographs proving that both accounts were correct: The brothers had been hanged in both locations, having been apparently first hanged from the crossing, and then later taken down and hanged on the pine tree.

Taken together I still consider the “hanging body/rope broke” solution possible — but now find something else even more likely. (J. P. Holding, Does Matthew contradict Acts on Judas Iscariot’s death?; emphasis mine)

FURTHER READING

The Fate of Judas Iscariot

101 Cleared-up Contradictions in the Bible, Pt. 2, Pt. 3, Pt. 4