Tag: bible

QURAN MSS & CARBON DATING

I will be quoting from renowned Islamic scholar and Mariologist Stephen J. Shoemaker’s Creating the Qur’an: A Historical-Critical Study, published by University of California Press, Oakland, California 2022, Chapter 3, Radiocarbon Dating and the Origins of the Qur’an. Shoemaker demonstrates why carbon dating is inexact and cannot decisively prove that the oldest extant Quranic MSS, e.g., Birmingham Quran, Sana’a etc., date from before the very end of the seventh century AD. All emphasis will be mine.

As we noted at the end of the preceding chapter, the radiocarbon dating of certain early manuscripts of the Qur’an has become something of a flashpoint in recent studies of the Qur’an.1 For those who wish to maintain the accuracy of the traditional Sunni account of the Qur’an’s composition, as well as its contrived scholarly offspring, the Nöldekean-Schwallian paradigm, some radiocarbon analyses of these early manuscripts could appear to validate their convictions. Yet at the same time, repeated attempts to date these same early codices have yielded drastically different results in some cases, seeming to indicate that something is not working quite right with this method of dating, at least for parchments from the early medieval Near East. Nevertheless, scholars committed to the traditional narrative of the Qur’an’s origins have fervently upheld the accuracy of those studies favoring their position, while searching out reasons to impugn the results that do not.

The scientific luster of these results can and often does beguile scholars (particularly when the results support their presuppositions), even as it seems increasingly clear that this method is not entirely accurate for dating early Qur’ans, at least not within a range narrower than a century or two. Indeed, scholars of the Dead Sea Scrolls faced very similar difficulties when trying to radiocarbon date documents from that collection. A deeper look into the ins and outs of radiocarbon dating can help us to understand why, for the time being at least, radiocarbon dating has not proved a reliable method for determining the date of the Qur’an’s formation. While these methods of scientific analysis are welcome and useful for the contribution that they can bring, they nevertheless have so far failed to deliver any sort of “silver bullet” that can instantly resolve the many complex issues surrounding the early history of the Qur’an. Instead, it seems that for the time being we must continue the hard work of historical-critical analysis, alongside the data from radiocarbon analysis, in order to understand the history of the Qur’an’s composition and canonization. (Pp. 70-71)

The answer would appear to lie in the fact that the original Qur’anic text of the Sanaa manuscript’s erased lower writing is a nonstandard version of the Qur’an that deviates regularly from the received version now identified as the “ʿUthmānic” Qur’an. As such, it is an extremely rare, although not unique, witness to the diverse ways with which the Qur’an continued to circulate still at the end of the seventh century. Efforts have been made to identify the manuscript’s original Qur’an with one of the early Companion codices as described by the later tradition, without much success. Instead, what we have in the undertext of Sanaa 01–27–1 is a witness to a different, early version of the Qur’an.25 Only once the “ʿUthmānic” text had achieved dominance was it erased and replaced with the canonical version of the Qur’an in the middle of the eighth century. Thus, as Déroche concludes, it would appear that noncanonical versions of the Qur’an were still being produced as late as 700 CE and were only eliminated eventually through the efforts of ʿAbd al-Malik and al-Ḥajjāj to establish a particular version of the Qur’an as canonical.26 (P. 77)

… Therefore, given the current state of our knowledge, it remains the fact that the form of the text as written onto the Tübingen parchments corresponds with other Qur’ans from the early eighth century, which bear the hallmarks of production under imperial auspices.40

A similar early Qur’an, whose “discovery” was heralded online around the same time as the Tübingen manuscript, has emerged from the Mingana collection at the University of Birmingham. The manuscript had been in the university library’s collection for almost a century at the time (Mingana Islamic Arabic 1572a), overlooked until radiocarbon analysis of a folio, done at Oxford University, dated its parchment to sometime between 568 and 645 CE with a probability of 95.4 percent (1456 BP ± 21; 578–646 CE with IntCal 20).41 As with the Tübingen manuscript, following the announcement of these results, the press and online media quickly went into a frenzy over this “oldest” witness to the Qur’an, beguiled once again by the supposedly rock-solid scientific evidence of the radiocarbon dating. The only problem is that if we strictly follow the radiocarbon dating, the parchment seems a bit too early for the tradition of an ʿUthmānic collection, if not also for Muhammad’s authorship, at least in the case of earlier dates within the range of possibilities. As Gabriel Reynolds notes, the very early results from the radiocarbon dating of this manuscript would in fact seem to confirm that early datings of folios from the Sanaa manuscript are not, as some have suggested, the result of a “botched job,” but are instead relatively accurate datings of the parchments used in this codex.42 The so-called “Birmingham Qur’an” consists in fact of just two leaves from an ancient manuscript that have been bound together with seven leaves from another manuscript. Yet Fedeli, who “discovered” the Birmingham manuscript, has also identified sixteen folios in the Bibliothèque nationale de France from the same early manuscript (MS BnF328c). There are thus eighteen total folios from this early manuscript, and their analysis forms a major part of Fedeli’s dissertation, which convincingly demonstrates that the text written on the parchment seems to be significantly more recent. Indeed, despite being credited with discovering the world’s oldest Qur’an in the press, Fedeli has from the start insisted that this witness to the Qur’an should not necessarily be dated as early as this particular radiocarbon analysis might suggest.43 (P. 80)

Given the state of the Qur’anic text as it was copied onto this manuscript, it seems extremely unlikely that this Qur’an could possibly date to the time indicated by the radiocarbon analysis of the parchment. If we insisted on such a date, between 568 and 645 CE, then we must revise the traditional narrative of the Qur’an’s origins not to a later date, but in the opposite direction, concluding that it took place much earlier than the Nöldekean-Schwallian paradigm would have it. In such a case we must assume that a highly advanced and technical practice of writing was in place well before ʿUthmān (who began to reign in 644 CE), but this is extremely unlikely, as we will see in chapter 5. Likewise, such a dating requires the circulation of even older exemplars that could have been copied by the individual who produced this particular manuscript. This manuscript simply is not a first draft of the Qur’an for reasons that Fedeli has amply demonstrated, and so we cannot imagine that this might somehow be one of ʿUthmān’s initial codices. Yet the possibility of a pre-ʿUthmānic Qur’an leads us in another direction and to another possibility—namely, that the Qur’an, or at least some significant parts of it, is in fact pre-Muhammad. In fact, Reynolds suggested as much following the announcement of the Birmingham Qur’an’s radiocarbon dating.47

As Reynolds briefly remarks, there are many elements of the Qur’anic text that early Islamic scholarship simply could not understand, which is rather puzzling if the text had a continuous transmission from Muhammad through the early community. This is particularly so in instances where the meaning of certain words and their vocalization is largely unknown—indeed, sometimes the Qur’an itself does not seem to fully understand some of its own declarations.48 James Bellamy convincingly demonstrated in several articles that these passages indicate, at least in some cases, that “there was no oral tradition stemming directly from the prophet strong enough to overcome all the uncertainties inherent in the writing system.”49 One could readily understand such ignorance if in fact the Qur’an—at least in some parts—were a much older text that predated Muhammad and his new religious movement, written using language that the members of that movement did not always comprehend. Both Michael Cook and Patricia Crone (as noted already above) have suggested this hypothesis in their more recent works, and it is one that we will return to in the final chapter of this book, when we come to consider the context implied by the contents of the Qur’an.50 (Pp. 81-82)

If one is still clinging to some hope that we might be able to find a way out of the messiness of this method, well, things are about to get even more complicated. I know of two instances in which early Islamic documents with known dates were subjected to radiocarbon analysis, and the results were not at all reassuring. Déroche had samples from two dated Qur’ans analyzed by the Lyon lab: one with a known date indicating its production in 1020 CE and the other in 907 CE. The radiocarbon dating of the first Qur’an came in at 1130 BP ± 30 years, or between 871 and 986 CE with a 95 percent probability (774–994 CE with IntCal 20). “The most probable dates,” Déroche further reports, “arranged in decreasing order of probability were 937, 895 and 785AD. The closest result, that is to say 937 AD, is separated by eighty-three years from the date provided by the colophon.” Even if we use the upper limit of the date range—that is to say, 986 CE—the difference still amounts to thirty-four years, around a third of a century.61 For the second Qur’an, the radiocarbon date was determined at 1205 BP ± 30, with a calibrated date of between 716 and 891 CE (704–941 CE with IntCal 20). Déroche identifies the most probable dates, “once again in decreasing order of probability: 791, 806 and 780AD. The most probable result, 791AD, is 116 years earlier than the actual date.”62 It is true, however, that in this case the uppermost date is reasonably close to the actual year in which the Qur’an was copied. Nevertheless, absent this specific information regarding its production, we would be very much at sea in dating this Qur’an, and it is certainly quite possible that the parchment used for this codex was a century or so older than the text itself. Or it may be that, again, for whatever reason, something is not working with our calibration of historical C-14 levels.

Fred Donner has also performed similar tests of this method and its accuracy. Although the results have not yet been published, Donner revealed them publicly during the question and answer session at the presidential address for the International Association of Qur’anic Studies in November 2018. Professor Donner was kind enough to allow me to relate the gist of his findings in advance of their pending formal publication.63 He took samples from an undated papyrus, which, based on content, he is quite sure dates to early in the seventh century. He sent samples to two labs. The first one returned a dating in the early 800s CE. The second lab, Oxford, gave a result of 650–700 CE, which is closer to the suspected date, but still a little too late. In light of these results, he sent samples from two dated papyrus letters to the Oxford lab, without revealing that he already knew the dates. One letter was dated to 715 CE, and the other to 860 CE; both samples came back with dates around 780 CE, much too late for the former, while indicating use of an eighty-year-old papyrus in the case of the later. In both instances the radiocarbon date was an altogether inaccurate indicator of the age of the texts in questions, beyond a general dating to the eighth or ninth centuries. And here, once again, we also see dramatically different results obtained from different labs for the same artifact. If this is a method whose results are truly scientific, it seems that the results should be able to be reproduced and replicated with regularity. (86-87)

How any refinements in radiocarbon dating for this region will impact our calibration of the raw radiocarbon dates for the parchments from Sanaa and anywhere else in southern Arabia remains unknown and will likely continue to remain unknown for some time to come. Therefore, it would be prudent to abandon any efforts to assign dates to these materials on the basis of radiocarbon measurements with any greater precision than a century or so for the foreseeable future. Just to give an idea of how much the differing radiocarbon levels from the southern hemisphere that would affect Sanaa seasonally could have an impact on calibration of radiocarbon age to dates CE, we give the dates calculated for each object according to the Northern and Southern hemispheric datasets with a 95 percent probability side by side (see table 4).85 In some cases, the differences are relatively minimal, yet in others they are significant. In general, one will note, the concentrations of 14C in the Southern Hemisphere yield later datings, as is the trend of this calibration dataset. In some cases, the difference is only a couple of decades; in others, dating with the data from the Southern Hemisphere could change the date of an object by a century. We would therefore be wise, I think, to use such data with greater caution than some scholars have hastily proposed and resist the temptation to misuse the method of radiocarbon analysis in attempting to date an object with greater precision than the method can presently provide. Clearly, these are all early manuscripts from the beginnings of Islam: radiocarbon dating affirms this, which we already knew. But what it cannot do, at least not as of yet, is date the text of the Qur’an in these manuscripts with any precision to a time before the very end of the seventh century, at the earliest. (Pp. 92-93)

Therefore, while radiocarbon dating adds an important new tool for studying the early manuscripts of the Qur’an, it must be used with caution, fully acknowledging its limitations and in conjunction with other methods of historical analysis. To invoke the results of radiocarbon dating as if it were the only data that matters is intellectually irresponsible and should be avoided, particularly since we have seen just how complex and often uncertain the process still remains. Indeed, Yasin Dutton similarly observes that a clear tendency can be observed in the results that leans toward dating manuscripts much earlier than otherwise seems to be likely, and he accordingly concludes as follows: “while the technique is broadly useful, it cannot be expected to yield the accuracy of dating that would be important.”91 And so, it seems, we ourselves are left to conclude that, despite the sensational claims of a few scholars, which have been amplified by the internet, the radiocarbon dating of a number of early Qur’anic manuscripts does not prove the historical accuracy of the Nöldekean-Schwallian paradigm. On the contrary, the convergence of all the presently available evidence—radiocarbon and historical— is not at all incompatible with the Qur’an’s composition into its present form only around the turn of the eighth century under the direction of ʿAbd al-Malik and al-Ḥajjāj; indeed, it would seem to favor this conclusion. (Pp. 94-95)

table 4. Calibrated Dating of Folios from Early Qur’anic Manuscripts in Sana according to Hemispheric Differences

Folio Northern Hemisphere (IntCal20) Southern Hemisphere (SHCal20)

Stanford ’07 (Arizona) 583–670 CE 602–774 CE

01-25-1 fol. 22 (Lyon) 554–645 CE 578–661 CE

01-27-1 fol. 2 (Lyon) 543–643 CE 576–660 CE

01-27-1 fol. 2 (Zürich) 598–649 CE 605–669 CE

01-27-1 fol. 11 (Lyon) 434–603 CE 529–643 CE

01-27-1 fol. 11 (Zürich) 605–660 CE 645–680 or 751–767 CE

01-27-1 fol. 13 (Oxford) 599–655 CE 607–680 or 750–768 CE

01-29-1 fol. 8 (Lyon) 436–640 CE 541–644 CE

01-29-1 fol. 8 (Zürich) 641–669 CE 654–772 CE

01-25-1 fol. 22 (Lyon) 554–645 CE 578–661 CE

01-29-1 fol. 13 (Lyon) 598–665 CE 636–773 CE

01-29-1 fol. 13 (Zürich) 605–662 CE 647–680 or 750–768 CE

Using the data from Marx and Jocham 2019, 216 rather than Robin 2015b, 65, since the former is more recent and gives more precision. (Ibid., p. 92)

FURTHER READING

THE 1924 ARABIC QURAN: AN UNINSPIRED HUMAN COMPILATION

JWS, JESUS & THE MIGHTY GOD

The Book of Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah is the Mighty God who will be born as a Child:  

“However, the gloom will not be as when the land had distress, as in former times when the land of Zebʹu·lun and the land of Naphʹta·li were treated with contempt. But at a later time He will cause it to be honored—the way by the sea, in the region of the Jordan, Galʹi·lee of the nations. The people who were walking in the darkness Have seen a great light. As for those dwelling in the land of deep shadow, Light has shone on them… For a child has been born to us, A son has been given to us; And the rulership will rest on his shoulder. His name will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God (el gibbor), Eternal Father, Prince of Peace. To the increase of his rulership And to peace, there will be no end, On the throne of David and on his kingdom In order to establish it firmly and to sustain it Through justice and righteousness, From now on and forever. The zeal of Jehovah of armies will do this.” Isaiah 9:1-2, 6-7 – Cf. Matt. 4:12-17; Luke 1:26-43, 79

The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of the Jehovah’s Witnesses admit that Jesus is being described as the Mighty God in this prophetic text. However, the Society seeks to undermine the implication this has by stating that Jesus is never identified as the Almighty God.

Here’s what they write in respect to this point:

“Mighty God” and “Eternal Father”

25. What does the name “Mighty God” tell us about the heavenly Jesus?

25 Jesus is also “Mighty God” and “Eternal Father.” This does not mean that he usurps the authority and position of Jehovah, who is “God our Father.” (2 Corinthians 1:2) “He [Jesus] . . . gave no consideration to a seizure, namely, that he should be equal to God.” (Philippians 2:6) He is called Mighty God, not Almighty God. Jesus never thought of himself as God Almighty, for he spoke of his Father as “the only true God,” that is, the only God who should be worshiped. (John 17:3; Revelation 4:11) In the Scriptures, the word “god” can mean “mighty one” or “strong one.” (Exodus 12:12; Psalm 8:5; 2 Corinthians 4:4) Before Jesus came to earth, he was “a god,” “existing in God’s form.” After his resurrection, he returned to an even higher position in the heavens. (John 1:1; Philippians 2:6-11) Further, the designation “god” carries an additional implication. Judges in Israel were called “gods”​—once by Jesus himself. (Psalm 82:6; John 10:35) Jesus is Jehovah’s appointed Judge, “destined to judge the living and the dead.” (2 Timothy 4:1; John 5:30) Clearly, he is well named Mighty God.

26. Why can Jesus be called “Eternal Father”?

26 The title “Eternal Father” refers to the Messianic King’s power and authority to give humans the prospect of eternal life on earth. (John 11:25, 26) The legacy of our first parent, Adam, was death. Jesus, the last Adam, “became a life-giving spirit.” (1 Corinthians 15:22, 45; Romans 5:12, 18) Just as Jesus, the Eternal Father, will live forever, so obedient mankind will enjoy the benefits of his fatherhood eternally.​—Romans 6:9. (Isaiah’s Prophecy—Light for All Mankind, Chapter Ten The Promise of a Prince of Peace, pp. 130-131 https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/Isaiahs-Prophecy-Light-for-All-Mankind-I/The-Promise-of-a-Prince-of-Peace/)

There are several problems with the arguments set forth by the Society.

First, the biblical doctrine of the Trinity does not teach that Jesus usurps the authority and position of Jehovah God the Father. Rather, the Trinity teaches that Jesus is one with the Father in essence, and therefore equal with him in authority and position.

Second, nowhere do Jesus and the inspired NT writings ever deny that the Son is the Almighty God. This is nothing more than an argument from silence.

Moreover, Jesus’ affirmation that the Father is the only true God isn’t a rejection of his also being the true God, but a contrast between the One who is God from those beings who are wrongly worshiped as such.

The teachings of Christ and his Spirit-filled followers are clear that the Son is essentially coequal with the Father and the Spirit. As such, this means that the Father is the only true God in union with–not in opposition to–his Son and Spirit (Cf. John 1:1-4, 9-10, 14; 10:27-33; 1 John 1:1-3; 5:20-21; Jude 1:4). I will have more to say in regards to this a little later.

This brings me to my next point.

In the very next chapter, the prophet Isaiah went on to identify Jehovah as the Mighty God:

“In that day those remaining of Israel And the survivors of the house of Jacob Will no longer support themselves on the one who struck them; But they will support themselves on Jehovah, The Holy One of Israel, with faithfulness. Only a remnant will return, The remnant of Jacob, to the Mighty God (el gibbor).” Isaiah 10:20-21

The prophet also hammers the point of there being no other god besides Jehovah God:

“Hez·e·kiʹah took the letters out of the hand of the messengers and read them. Hez·e·kiʹah then went up to the house of Jehovah and spread them out before Jehovah.  And Hez·e·kiʹah began to pray to Jehovah and say: ‘O Jehovah of armies, the God of Israel, sitting enthroned above the cherubs, you alone are the true God (ha elohim) of all the kingdoms of the earth. You made the heavens and the earth. Incline your ear, O Jehovah, and hear! Open your eyes, O Jehovah, and see! Hear all the words that Sen·nachʹer·ib has sent to taunt the living God. It is a fact, O Jehovah, that the kings of As·syrʹi·a have devastated all the lands, as well as their own land. And they have thrown their gods into the fire, because they were not gods but the work of human hands, wood and stone. That is why they could destroy them. But now, O Jehovah our God, save us out of his hand, so that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that you alone are God, O Jehovah.’” Isaiah 37:14-20

“‘You are my witnesses,’ declares Jehovah, ‘Yes, my servant whom I have chosen, So that you may know and have faith in me And understand that I am the same One. Before me no God (el) was formed, And after me there has been none. I—I am Jehovah, and besides me there is no savior.’” Isaiah 43:10-11

“This is what Jehovah says, The King of Israeli and his Repurchaser, Jehovah of armies: ‘I am the first and I am the last. There is no God (elohim) but me. Who is there like me? Let him call out and tell it and prove it to me! From the time I established the people of long ago, Let them tell both the things to come And what will yet happen. Do not be in dread, And do not become paralyzed with fear. Have I not told each of you beforehand and declared it? You are my witnesses. Is there any God (eloah) but me? No, there is no other Rock; I know of none.” Isaiah 44:6-8

“I am Jehovah, and there is no one else. There is no God (elohim) except me. I will strengthen you, although you did not know me, In order that people may know From the rising of the sun to its setting That there is none besides me. I am Jehovah, and there is no one else… Make your report, present your case. Let them consult together in unity. Who foretold this long ago And declared it from times past? Is it not I, Jehovah? There is no other God (elohim) but me; A righteous God (el) and a Savior, there is none besides me. Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth, For I am God (el), and there is no one else. By myself I have sworn; The word has gone out of my mouth in righteousness, And it will not return: To me every knee will bend, Every tongue will swear loyalty.” Isaiah 45:5-6, 21-23

“Remember the former things of long ago, That I am God (el), and there is no other. I am God (elohim), and there is no one like me. From the beginning I foretell the outcome, And from long ago the things that have not yet been done. I say, ‘My decision will stand, And I will do whatever I please.’ I am calling a bird of prey from the sunrise, From a distant land the man to carry out my decision. I have spoken, and I will bring it about. I have purposed it, and I will also carry it out.” Isaiah 46:9-11

The rest of the inspired Scriptures agree since it denies that there can be any other god by nature:

“Nevertheless, when YOU did not know God, then it was that YOU slaved for those who by nature are not gods (tois physei me ousin theois).” Galatians 4:8 New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1984 Edition)

Paul is referring to the gods whom the heathen worship which, according to him, are actually demons:

“What then am I saying?—That an idol-sacrifice is anything? Or that an idol is anything? On the contrary—That the things which the nations sacrifice Unto demons and not unto God they sacrifice; And I wish not that ye should become sharers together with the demons! Ye cannot be drinking—a cup of the Lord and a cup of demons; Ye cannot be partaking of a table of the Lord and a table of demons. Or are we to provoke the Lord to jealousy? Are we mightier than he?” 1 Corinthians 10:19-22 The Emphasized Bible

According to the Scriptures these demon gods whom the nations served are actually the fallen angels:

“Let all those serving any carved image be ashamed, Those who are making their boast in valueless gods. Bow down to him, all YOU gods. *+” Psalm 97:7

Footnote

“Gods.” Heb., ʼelo·himʹ; LXXSyVg, “his angels.”

Cross References

Exodus 12:12

12  And I must pass through the land of Egypt on this night and strike every firstborn in the land of Egypt, from man to beast; and on all the gods of Egypt I shall execute judgments. I am Jehovah.

Exodus 18:11

11  Now I do know that Jehovah is greater than all the [other] gods by reason of this affair in which they acted presumptuously against them.”

Psalm 86:8

 8  There is none like you among the gods, O Jehovah, Neither are there any works like yours.

Hebrews 1:6

6  But when he again brings his Firstborn into the inhabited earth, he says: “And let all God’s angels do obeisance to him.” (New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (1984 Edition) https://www.jw.org/en/library/bible/bi12/books/psalms/97/#v19097007)

Note how the Society itself cross references Hebrews 1:6 to indicate that this is the passage which Paul is quoting from.

What this means is that none of the angelic host are divine in nature, not even the righteous ones among them such as Michael or Gabriel.

Note how this works out logically:

  1. The beings which the Gentiles worshiped are not really gods in nature.
  2. The gods worshiped by the nations are demons.
  3. These demons are the rebellious angelic creatures, which includes Satan.
  4. Therefore, created angelic beings are not gods in an ontological sense.

What this shows is that there is only one true Mighty God in existence, namely, Jehovah. Therefore, Jesus cannot be the Mighty God without being Jehovah, since Jehovah alone is the Mighty God. And since Jehovah is also the Almighty God, this means that Jesus must therefore be Almighty as well!

This is further brought out from the fact that the Scriptures affirm that none of the angelic creatures are like Jehovah or as mighty as he, nor are they capable of doing the works he does in the same manner in which he does them:

“There is none like you among the gods (elohim), O Jehovah, There are no works like yours. All the nations that you made Will come and bow down before you, O Jehovah, And they will give glory to your name. For you are great and do wondrous things; You are God (elohim), you alone.” Psalm 86:8-10

“The heavens praise your marvels, O Jehovah, Yes, your faithfulness in the congregation of the holy ones. For who in the skies can compare to Jehovah? Who among the sons of God (bibne elim) is like Jehovah?  God is held in awe in the council of holy ones; He is grand and awe-inspiring to all who are around him. O Jehovah God of armies, Who is mighty like you, O Jah? Your faithfulness surrounds you.” Psalm 89:5-8

And yet the God-breathed writings proclaim that Jesus is exactly like the Father since he can do whatever the Father does in the exact same manner in which the Father does them. This even includes creating and sustaining the entire creation!

“For this reason the Jews were persecuting Jesus, because he was doing these things during the Sabbath. But he answered them: ‘My Father has kept working until now, and I keep working.’ This is why the Jews began seeking all the more to kill him, because not only was he breaking the Sabbath but he was also calling God his own Father, making himself equal to God. Therefore, in response Jesus said to them: ‘Most truly I say to you, the Son cannot do a single thing of his own initiative, but only what he sees the Father doing. For whatever things that One does, these things the Son does also in like manner. For the Father has affection for the Son and shows him all the things he himself does, and he will show him works greater than these, so that you may marvel.For just as the Father raises the dead up and makes them alive, so the Son also makes alive whomever he wants to. For the Father judges no one at all, but he has entrusted all the judging to the Son, so that all may honor the Son just as they honor the Father. Whoever does not honor the Son does not honor the Father who sent him.’” John 5:17-23

“who delivered you out of the jurisdiction of darkness and transferred you into the kingdom of the Son of his love, in whom we have redemption, the pardon of sins,—Who is image of the invisible God, firstborn of all creation, because in him EVERYTHING was created in the heavens and on earth, the visible and the invisible, be it thrones or lordships or governments or dominions—everything has been created through him and to come to him, and before everything HE IS, and IN HIM everything holds together. And he is the head of the body, the church, he who is the beginning, the firstborn out of the dead, in order that he may take the first place in every respect, because in him all the fullness was pleased to make its home and through him to reconcile everything to him, making peace through the blood of his cross, through him whether it were the things on earth or the things in the heavens,” Colossians 1:13-20 The Bible in Living English

Jesus is further described as being the very exact imprint/representation of the Father’s infinite, uncreated Being:

“Long ago God spoke to our forefathers by means of the prophets on many occasions and in many ways. Now at the end of these days he has spoken to us by means of a Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, and through whom he made the systems of things. He is the reflection of God’s glory and the EXACT REPRESENTATION of his very being, and HE sustains all things by the word of his power. And after he had made a purification for our sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high… But about the Son, he says… And: ‘At the beginning, O Lord [the Son], you laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the works of your hands. They will perish, but you will remain; and just like a garment, they will all wear out, and you will wrap them up just as a cloak, as a garment, and they will be changed. But you are the same, and your years will never come to an end.’” Hebrews 1:1-3, 8a, 10-12

Remarkably, the inspired Apostle has the Father quoting the following Psalm about Jehovah’s being the unchangeable Creator and Sustainer of all creation,

“A prayer of the oppressed one when he is in despair and pours out his concern before Jehovah. O Jehovah, hear my prayer; Let my cry for help reach you. But you remain forever, O Jehovah, And your fame will endure for all generations… I said: ‘O my God, Do not do away with me in the middle of my life, You whose years span all generations. Long ago you laid the foundations of the earth, And the heavens are the work of your hands. They will perish, but you will remain; Just like a garment they will all wear out. Just like clothing you will replace them, and they will pass away. But you are the same, and your years will never end.” Psalm 102:1, 12, 24-27  

And attributing it to his Son!

In other words, it is the Father himself who glorifies the Lord Jesus for being that very immutable Creator and Sustainer of the entire creation, thereby identifying Christ as Jehovah God Almighty who became a human being for the salvation of the world!  

Since the Father himself testifies that Jesus is Jehovah this means that the Son is indeed God Almighty. There’s simply no way around this.

To sum up the biblical arguments:

  1. Jesus is the Mighty God.
  2. Only Jehovah is the Mighty God.
  3. Jesus is, therefore, Jehovah God in the flesh (even though he is not the Father or the Spirit).
  4. Jehovah is also the Almighty God.
  5. Therefore, Jesus is the Almighty God since he is Jehovah who became Man.

Unless noted otherwise, all scriptural references taken from The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures.

FURTHER READING

Jesus Christ – The Mighty God: More OT Evidence for the Deity of the Messiah

Jesus as the Mighty God of Isaiah 9:6

Jesus is the Eternal Father but He is not God the Father!

JESUS IS NOT A CREATED ANGEL

JUDAISM’S RAMBAM CONFIRMS: THE MESSIAH IS THE MIGHTY GOD AND GOD’S BEGOTTEN SON!

JWS AGREE: ISAIAH SAW CHRIST!

According to the inspired Scriptures, the prophet Isaiah was allowed to see Jehovah God Almighty in a visible form, where he appeared to be visibly seated on a visible throne wearing a robe:

“In the year that King Uz·ziʹah died, I saw Jehovah sitting on a lofty and elevated throne, and the skirts of his robe filled the temple. Seraphs were standing above him; each had six wings. Each covered his face with two and covered his feet with two, and each of them would fly about with two.  And one called to the other: ‘Holy, holy, holy is Jehovah of armies. The whole earth is filled with HIS GLORY.’ And the pivots of the thresholds quivered at the sound of the shouting, and the house was filled with smoke. Then I said: “Woe to me! I am as good as dead, For I am a man of unclean lips, And I live among a people of unclean lips; For my eyes have seen the King, Jehovah of armies himself!’

“At that, one of the seraphs flew to me, and in his hand was a glowing coal that he had taken with tongs from the altar. He touched my mouth and said: ‘Look! This has touched your lips. Your guilt is removed, And your sin is atoned for.’ 

“Then I heard the voice of Jehovah saying: ‘Whom shall I send, and who will go for US?’ And I said: ‘Here I am! Send me!’ And he replied, ‘Go, and say to this people: “You will hear again and again, But you will not understand; You will see again and again, But you will not get any knowledge.” Make the heart of this people unreceptive, Make their ears unresponsive, And paste their eyes together, So that they may not see with their eyes And hear with their ears, So that their heart may not understand And they may not turn back and be healed.’” Isaiah 6:1-10

On the other hand, John’s Gospel teaches that this is the time when Isaiah actually saw Jesus in his prehuman existence:   

“Then the crowd answered him: ‘We heard from the Law that the Christ remains forever. How can you say that the Son of man must be lifted up? Who is this Son of man?’ So Jesus said to them: ‘The light will be among you a little while longer. Walk while you still have the light, so that darkness does not overpower you; whoever walks in the darkness does not know where he is going While you have the light, exercise faith in the light, so that you may become sons of light.’ Jesus said these things and went off and hid from them. Although he had performed so many signs before them, they were not putting faith in him, so that the word of Isaiah the prophet might be fulfilled, who said: ‘Jehovah, who has put faith in the thing heard from us? And as for the arm of Jehovah, to whom has it been revealed?’   

“The reason why they were not able to believe is that again Isaiah said: ‘He has blinded their eyes and has made their hearts hard, so that they would not see with their eyes and understand with their hearts and turn around and I heal them.’ Isaiah said these things because he saw HIS GLORY, and he spoke about him. All the same, many even of the rulers actually put faith in him, but they would not acknowledge him because of the Pharisees, so that they would not be expelled from the synagogue; for they loved the glory of men even more than the glory of God. However, Jesus called out and said: ‘Whoever puts faith in me puts faith not only in me but also in him who sent me; and whoever sees me sees also the One who sent me. I have come as a light into the world, so that everyone putting faith in me may not remain in the darkness.’” John 12:34-46

The Apostle cites Isaiah 6:10 and states that Isaiah said these words because he had seen Jesus Christ’s glory and spoke of him. John then immediately follows this up by quoting the Lord himself clearly stating that to see him is to see the One who sent him, meaning, the Father.

Nor is this the only place where Jesus made such a remarkable claim:

“Jesus said to him: ‘I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me. If you men had known me, you would have known my Father also; from this moment on you know him and have seen him.’ Philip said to him: ‘Lord, show us the Father, and it is enough for us.’ Jesus said to him: ‘Even after I have been with you men for such a long time, Philip, have you not come to know me? Whoever has seen me has seen the Father also. How is it you say, “Show us the Father”? Do you not believe that I am in union with the Father and the Father is in union with me? The things I say to you I do not speak of my own originality, but the Father who remains in union with me is doing his works. Believe me that I am in union with the Father and the Father is in union with me; otherwise, believe because of the works themselves.’” John 14:6-11

The inspired Apostle himself wrote that no one has seen or could ever see God apart from the only begotten God making him known:

“No man has seen God at any time; the only-begotten god who is at the Father’s side is the one who has explained Him.” John 1:18

What this means is that Isaiah must have beheld the glory of the prehuman Christ since the prophet could not have looked upon or even heard from Jehovah apart from the Son revealing God to him.

To put this in simpler terms, the Jehovah whose glory Isaiah saw was none other than that of the Lord Jesus Christ himself.

Astonishingly, the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of the Jehovah’s Witnesses agrees with this fact since it candidly admits that Jesus was present during the time the prophet saw Jehovah (whom the Society identifies as the Father). They base this on the words of Isaiah 6:8 where the Voice of the Lord asks, “Whom shall I send, and who will go for US (lanu)?”.

The Society explains the reason why Jehovah’s Voice spoke in the plural “Us,” is because Jehovah was speaking to his only-begotten Son and Word, the very One who later became the Man Christ Jesus:

13 Let us listen with Isaiah. “I began to hear the voice of Jehovah saying: ‘Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?’ And I proceeded to say: ‘Here I am! Send me.’”(Isaiah 6:8) The question propounded by Jehovah is clearly designed to elicit a response from Isaiah, as no other human prophet appears in the vision. It is unmistakably an invitation for Isaiah to be Jehovah’s messenger. But why does Jehovah ask, “Who will go for us?” By switching from the singular personal pronoun “I” to the plural pronoun “us,” Jehovah now includes at least one other person with himself. Who? Was this not his only-begotten Son, who later became the man Jesus Christ? Indeed, it was this same Son to whom God said, “Let us make man in our image.” (Genesis 1:26; Proverbs 8:30, 31) Yes, alongside Jehovah in the heavenly courts is his only-begotten Son.​—John 1:14. (Isaiah’s Prophecy—Light for All Mankind, Chapter Eight. Chapter Eight Jehovah God Is in His Holy Temple, pp. 93-94 https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/Isaiahs-Prophecy-Light-for-All-Mankind-I/Jehovah-God-Is-in-His-Holy-Temple/; emphasis mine)

And:

In 778 B.C.E., the year Judean King Uzziah died, God’s prophet Isaiah beheld a vision of Jehovah on his lofty throne. “Whom shall I send, and who will go for us?” asked Jehovah. Isaiah volunteered, but Jehovah warned him that his fellow Israelites would be unresponsive to his declarations. The apostle John compared the unbelieving Jews of the first century to the people of Isaiah’s day, and noted: “Isaiah said these things because he saw his glory.” Whose glory? That of Jehovah AND OF THE PREHUMAN JESUS ALONGSIDE HIM in the heavenly courts.—Isaiah 6:1, 8-10; John 12:37-41. (Jesus—The Ruler “Whose Origin Is From Early Times,” The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah’s Kingdom—1998, p. 24 https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1998445; emphasis mine)

Again:

3 Did this Greater Isaiah need a miraculous vision of Jehovah enthroned in his temple with seraphs attending upon him, such as the original Isaiah had had? No, for he had been the heavenly Son of God and had beheld “the King, Jehovah of armies,” on his heavenly throne itself, and enjoyed heavenly glory with Jehovah. (John 17:5, 11, 20-24) By laying aside his heavenly glory and by having his life force transferred from heaven to earth by Jehovah’s miraculous power, he had become the man Jesus Christ. (Luke 1:26-38; Phil. 2:5-11) The human name that Jehovah God commanded to be given his Son on earth was Jesus, which is the shortened form for Jehoshua. Its meaning corresponds with that of the name Isaiah, only in reverse order. Jesus (or Jehoshua) means “Jehovah Is Salvation,” whereas Isaiah means “Salvation of Jah (Jehovah).” This circumstance goes well with the fact that Jesus Christ is the Greater Isaiah. Before becoming a man, he as the heavenly Son of God had been with Jehovah at the time that He said to the prophet Isaiah in the temple vision: “Who will go for us?” that is, ‘for me Jehovah and FOR my only-begotten Son.’—Isa. 6:8. (Have You Said: “Here I Am! Send Me”? The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah’s Kingdom—1966, p. 753 https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1966922; emphasis mine)

Once more:

What “things” did Isaiah say “because he saw his glory”? Well, John quotes Isaiah here twice, first quoting Isaiah 53:1 concerning the ‘arm of Jehovah’ and then quoting Isaiah 6:10 concerning the temple vision. At Isaiah 53:1 the ‘arm of Jehovah’ is Christ Jesus. At Isaiah 6:10 the speaker at the temple is Jehovah, but HE INCLUDES HIS SON with him when he says: “Who will go for us?” that is, for me AND MY SON. Thus we see that the prehuman Jesus WAS ASSOCIATED WITH JEHOVAH IN HIS GLORY at the temple, and hence John could rightly say Isaiah here saw his glory and spoke about him, “the arm of Jehovah.” Certainly Jesus the Greater Isaiah had not sent himself, but Jehovah at the temple did so, for John here applies Isaiah 6:10 to Jesus as the Sent One toward whom this prophecy was first fulfilled, after Jesus had ridden into Jerusalem and offered himself as King and had cleansed the temple. … Especially since his resurrection, Jesus is the reflection of Jehovah’s glory.—Heb. 1:2, 3; 2 Cor. 4:6. (“Commissioning of Witnesses in the Time of the End,” The Watchtower, April 1, 1951, p. 219; emphasis mine)

Finally:

The Jews’ lack of faith in Jesus fulfills the words of Isaiah about the ‘eyes of people being blinded and their hearts being hardened so that they do not turn around to be healed.’ Isaiah saw in vision the heavenly courts of Jehovah, including Jesus in his prehuman glory along with Jehovah. Yet, the Jews, in fulfillment of what Isaiah wrote, stubbornly reject the evidence that this One is their promised Deliverer…

▪ How did the prophet Isaiah see Jesus’ glory? (The Greatest Man Who Ever Lived, Chapter 104. God’s Voice Heard a Third Time https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/The-Greatest-Man-Who-Ever-Lived/Gods-Voice-Heard-a-Third-Time/; https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1989882; emphasis mine)

The Society’s candid acknowledgement that Isaiah beheld the glory of Jehovah and his preexistent, prehuman Son, and that it was with/to the Son whom Jehovah spoke in Genesis 1:26 in the creation of mankind raises serious problems for Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Isaiah 6 emphatically testifies that the prophet saw Jehovah’s glory alone, not the glory of God and a creature. Moreover, the context of Genesis 1:26 makes it explicitly clear that God alone created mankind in his own image and after his own likeness:

“Then God said: ‘Let us make man in our image, according to our likeness, and let them have in subjection the fish of the sea and the flying creatures of the heavens and the domestic animals and all the earth and every creeping animal that is moving on the earth.’   And God went on to create the man in HIS image, in God’s image HE created him; male and female HE created them.” Genesis 1:26-27

“This is the book of Adam’s history. In the day that God created Adam, HE made himin the likeness of God. Male and female HE created them. On the day they were created, HE blessed them and named them Man.” Genesis 5:1-2

“This is a history of the heavens and the earth in the time they were created, in the day that Jehovah God made earth and heaven. No bush of the field was yet on the earth and no vegetation of the field had begun sprouting, because Jehovah God had not made it rain on the earth and there was no man to cultivate the ground.  But a mist would go up from the earth, and it watered the entire surface of the ground. And Jehovah God went on to form the man out of dust from the ground and to blow into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living person. Further, Jehovah God planted a garden in Eʹden, toward the east; and there HE put the man whom HE had formed… Now Jehovah God had been forming from the ground every wild animal of the field and every flying creature of the heavens, and he began bringing them to the man to see what he would call each one; and whatever the man would call each living creature, that became its name.   So the man named all the domestic animals and the flying creatures of the heavens and every wild animal of the field, but for man there was no helper as a complement of him. So Jehovah God caused the man to fall into a deep sleep, and while he was sleeping, HE took one of his ribs and then closed up the flesh over its place. And Jehovah God built the rib that he had taken from the man into a woman, and HE brought her to the man. Then the man said: ‘This is at last bone of my bones And flesh of my flesh. This one will be called Woman, Because from man she was taken.’ That is why a man will leave his father and his mother and he will stick to his wife, and they will become one flesh.” Genesis 2:4-8, 19-24

Therefore, these others whom God called upon to create humanity in their image and after their likeness, could not have been created beings. Rather, these other individuals who assisted God in creating male and female as the one Adam, could only have been eternal divine Persons who are essentially coequal with God the Father.     

And since the Society admits that it was the prehuman Jesus that Jehovah spoke with/to, this means that Christ is not a creation of the Father, but is the uncreated Son of God who is equal to the Father in essence, power, glory and majesty (Cf. John 5:18, 22-23; 10:27-33; 8:50, 54; Rev. 5:13-14).

As such, the JWs are simply wrong to assert that Christ is the first creature whom Jehovah produced, being the archangel Michael both in his prehuman and post mortem existence.

Instead, the God-breathed Scriptures describe Jesus Christ as the uncreated Word of the Father who became flesh, the Son that has been eternally existing in God’s form who later took on human nature from the holy, consecrated womb of the Virgin by the power of the Holy Spirit, and will forever exist as the God-Man (Cf. Matt. 1:18-25; 2:1-6, 11; Luke 1:26-35; 2:4-15; John 1:1-4, 9-10, 14; Acts 2:24-36; 17:30-31; John 1:1-14; Phil. 2:5-11; 1 Tim. 2:5-6; 6:14-16; Col. 1:13-20; 2:2-3, 9-10; Heb. 1:1-3, 8-13; 2:9-18; Rev. 1:12-18; 2:8; 5:5; 22:12-16, 20-21).

Scriptural references taken from the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (Study Edition).

FURTHER READING

Jesus Christ: The God Whose Glory Isaiah Beheld

WHO DID THE PROPHETS SEE? A JEHOVAH’S WITNESS DILEMMA

JWS ADMIT: JESUS IS THE ETERNAL CREATOR!

Jesus Christ: The God of the Patriarchs and Prophets

Who Did Abraham See?

JWS, PETER & CHRIST’S DEITY

In this article I will show readers how to employ the Jehovah’s Witnesses very own (per)version of the Holy Bible to prove that Peter in his inspired epistles identified Jesus Christ as Jehovah God in the flesh. I will demonstrate that the blessed Apostle ascribes to the risen Lord specific functions, titles, glory and/or characteristics which the Hebrew Bible attributes to Jehovah alone.

I will be referencing the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (2013 Revision).

REVERENCING JEHOVAH JESUS

Peter writes to spiritual babes that have tasted the kindness of the Lord, and who have come to believe that he is the living Stone whom men have rejected

“As newborn infants, form a longing for the unadulterated milk of the word, so that by means of it you may grow to salvation, provided you have tasted that the Lord is kind. As you come to him, a living stone rejected by men but chosen, precious to God… and ‘a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense.’ They are stumbling because they are disobedient to the word. To this very end they were appointed.” 1 Peter 2:2-4, 8

The Apostle further exhorts Christians not to fear what unbelievers are frightened by, but rather to set apart Christ as the Lord whom they have to trust and hope in:

“But even if you should suffer for the sake of righteousness, you are happy. However, do not fear what they fear, nor be disturbed. But sanctify the Christ as Lord in your hearts, always ready to make a defense before everyone who demands of you a reason for the hope you have, but doing so with a mild temper and deep respect.” 1 Peter 3:14-15 

Remarkably, Peter has described Christ in the same way that the Psalmist refers to Jehovah:

“ט [Teth] Taste and see that Jehovah is good; Happy is the man who takes refuge in him.” Psalm 34:8

He has also applied to the risen Lord the very language, which the prophet Isaiah employs for Jehovah!

“You should not call a conspiracy what this people calls a conspiracy! Do not fear what they fear; Do not tremble at it.  Jehovah of armies—he is the One you should regard as holy, He is the One you should fear, And he is the One who should cause you to tremble. He will become as a sanctuary, But as a stone to strike against And as a rock to stumble over To both houses of Israel, As a trap and a snare To the inhabitants of Jerusalem.” Isaiah 8:12-14

What this means is that, for Peter, Jesus is the very Jehovah whose goodness believers have come to taste, and who is to be regarded as holy. It also shows that it is God’s Son who is that very Jehovah that Isaiah states is a Stone and Rock which causes unbelievers to stumble over!

To say that this is astonishing would be to put it mildly.

MAGNIFYING JEHOVAH JESUS

Just as astonishing is the fact that Peter concludes his 2nd letter with a doxology, an ascription of eternal praise to the risen Christ:  

“that you should remember the sayings previously spoken by the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior (tou kyriou kai soteros) through your apostles… No, but go on growing in the undeserved kindness and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ (tou kyriou hemon kai soteros ‘Iesou Christou). To him be the glory both now and to the day of eternity. Amen.” 2 Peter 3:2, 18

In the Hebrew Bible, doxologies are never offered to any other heavenly being besides Jehovah. And yet both here in 2 Peter, and elsewhere,

“I solemnly charge you before God and Christ Jesus, who is to judge the living and the dead, and by his manifestation and his Kingdom… From this time on, there is reserved for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, will give me as a reward in that day, yet not to me only, but also to all those who have loved his manifestation… The Lord will rescue me from every wicked work and will save me for his heavenly Kingdom. To him be the glory forever and ever. Amen.” 2 Timothy 4:1, 8, 18

“and from Jesus Christ, ‘the Faithful Witness,’ ‘the firstborn from the dead,’ and ‘the Ruler of the kings of the earth.’ To him who loves us and who set us free from our sins by means of his own blood—and he made us to be a kingdom, priests to his God and Father—yes, to him be the glory and the might forever. Amen.” Revelation 1:5-6

“When he took the scroll, the four living creatures and the 24 elders fell down before the Lamb, and each one had a harp and golden bowls that were full of incense. (The incense means the prayers of the holy ones.)   And they sing a new song, saying: ‘You are worthy to take the scroll and open its seals, for you were slaughtered and with your blood you bought people for God out of every tribe and tongue and people and nation,  and you made them to be a kingdom and priests to our God, and they are to rule as kings over the earth.’ And I saw, and I heard a voice of many angels around the throne and the living creatures and the elders, and the number of them was myriads of myriads and thousands of thousands, and they were saying with a loud voice: ‘The Lamb who was slaughtered is worthy to receive the power and riches and wisdom and strength and honor and glory and blessing.’” Revelation 5:8-12

Ascriptions of praise are offered to the Son in the same exact way that they are offered to the Father, whether by Peter or others:

“If anyone speaks, let him do so as speaking pronouncements from God; if anyone ministers, let him do so as depending on the strength that God supplies; so that in all things God may be glorified through Jesus Christ. The glory and the might are his forever and ever. Amen.” 1 Peter 4:11

“But after you have suffered a little while, the God of all undeserved kindness, who called you to his everlasting glory in union with Christ, will himself finish your training. He will make you firm, he will make you strong, he will firmly ground you. To him be the might forever. Amen.” 1 Peter 5:10-11

“After this I saw, and look! an opened door in heaven, and the first voice that I heard speaking with me was like a trumpet, saying: ‘Come up here, and I will show you the things that must take place.’ After this I immediately came to be in the power of the spirit, and look! a throne was in its position in heaven, and someone was seated on the throne. And the One seated had the appearance of a jasper stone and a sardius stone, and all around the throne was a rainbow like an emerald in appearance. All around the throne were 24 thrones, and on these thrones I saw seated 24 elders dressed in white garments, and on their heads golden crowns.  From the throne were coming lightning and voices and thunders; and there were seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, and these mean the seven spirits of God. 

“Before the throne was something resembling a glassy sea, like crystal. In the midst of the throne and around the throne were four living creatures that were full of eyes in front and behind. The first living creature was like a lion, and the second living creature was like a young bull, and the third living creature had a face like a man’s, and the fourth living creature was like a flying eagle. As for the four living creatures, each one of them had six wings; they were full of eyes all around and underneath. And continuously, day and night, they say: ‘Holy, holy, holy is Jehovah God, the Almighty, who was and who is and who is coming.’

“Whenever the living creatures give glory and honor and thanksgiving to the One seated on the throne, the One who lives forever and ever, the 24 elders fall down before the One seated on the throne and worship the One who lives forever and ever, and they cast their crowns before the throne, saying: ‘You are worthy, Jehovah our God, to receive the glory and the honor and the power, because you created all things, and because of your will they came into existence and were created.’” Revelation 4:1-11

“All the angels were standing around the throne and the elders and the four living creatures, and they fell facedown before the throne and worshipped God, saying: ‘Amen! Let the praise and the glory and the wisdom and the thanksgiving and the honor and the power and the strength be to our God forever and ever. Amen.’” Revelation 7:11-12

There’s even a scene in Revelation where John sees every created being in the whole entire creation offering to the risen Lamb the exact same worship that the Father receives, and for the exact same duration!

“And I heard EVERY CREATURE in heaven and on earth and underneath the earth and on the sea, and ALL THE THINGS IN THEM, saying: ‘To the One sitting on the throne and to the Lamb be the blessing and the honor and the glory and the might forever and ever.’ The four living creatures were saying: ‘Amen!’ and the elders fell down and worshipped.” Revelation 5:13-14

These examples prove beyond any reasonable doubt that, as far as the inspired writers of the Scriptures are concerned, Jesus is not a created being. Rather, Christ is the uncreated Son of God who became Man for the redemption of creation, being equal to the Father (and the Holy Spirit) in essence, glory, power, honor and majesty.

SLAVING FOR JEHOVAH JESUS

Peter is not through just yet.

The Apostle starts off his 2nd epistle by referring to himself as the slave of the heavenly Jesus, who eternally reigns as the Lord and Savior of all believers. He also writes that favor and peace are granted to all those who continue to grow in their intimate knowledge of God and Christ:

“Simon Peter, a slave and an apostle of Jesus Christ. May undeserved kindness and peace be increased to you by an accurate knowledge of God and OF Jesus our Lord…  In fact, in this way you will be richly granted entrance into the everlasting Kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ (tou kyriou hemon kai soteros ‘Iesou Christou).” 2 Peter 1:1a-2, 11

“Certainly if after escaping from the defilements of the world by an accurate knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ (tou kyriou kai soteros ‘Iesou Christou), they get involved again with these very things and are overcome, their final state has become worse for them than the first.” 2 Peter 2:20

“No, but go on growing in the undeserved kindness and knowledge OF our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ…” 2 Peter 3:18a

However, the Hebrew Bible states that the heavenly Lord whom believers are to look to for favor is Jehovah:

“To you I raise my eyes, You who are enthroned in the heavens. As the eyes of servants look to the hand of their master, And the eyes of a servant girl to the hand of her mistress, So our eyes look to Jehovah our God Until he shows us favor.   Show us favor, O Jehovah, show us favor, For we have had our full share of contempt.” Psalm 123:1-3

Jesus himself warned against serving/slaving over two lords/masters, since it is not possible for one to love both equally:

“No one can slave for two masters (dysi kyriois); for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will stick to the one and despise the other. You cannot slave for God and for Riches.” Matthew 6:24

And yet both Peter and the other Apostles/NT writers unashamedly speak of themselves as being the slaves of both God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. They also have no qualms stating that spiritually blessings such as unmerited favor come from both of them equally!

“Paul, a slave of Christ Jesus and called to be an apostle, set apart for God’s good news, which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy Scriptures, concerning his Son, who came to be from the offspring of David according to the flesh, but who with power was declared God’s Son according to the spirit of holiness by means of resurrection from the dead—yes, Jesus Christ our Lord. Through him we received undeserved kindness and an apostleship with a view to obedience by faith among all the nations respecting his name, among which nations you also have been called to belong to Jesus Christ— to all those who are in Rome as God’s beloved ones, called to be holy ones: May you have undeserved kindness and peace from God our Father AND the Lord Jesus Christ.” Romans 1:1-7

“James, a slave of God AND OF the Lord Jesus Christ, to the 12 tribes that are scattered about: Greetings!” James 1:1

“Jude, a slave of Jesus Christ, but a brother of James, to the called ones who are loved by God the Father and preserved for Jesus Christ:” Jude 1:1

Once again, the only way that these monotheistic Jews could ever identify themselves as the slaves of two heavenly figures, namely of God and of Christ, and address Jesus as the Lord that reigns in/from heaven, while also stating that favor comes from both of them equally, is if they truly believed that God and his Son are equal in essence, power, glory and divinity.

THE JUSTICE OF JEHOVAH ALONE

Another way in which the inspired Apostle affirms Christ’s Deity is by claiming that the faith which believers were/are enabled to have for salvation came/comes through the justice or righteousness of God and Jesus Christ our Savior. I.e., it is because God and Christ are perfectly just and impartial that they do not discriminate when it comes to issue of who can be saved through faith:

“Simon Peter, a slave and an apostle of Jesus Christ, to those who have acquired a faith as precious as ours through the righteousness of our God AND the Savior Jesus Christ:” 2 Peter 1:1

I will not make a case here that this is another gross mistranslation of the Greek, which explicitly refers to Christ as both God and Savior. Rather, I will simply assume that Peter is distinguishing God from the Savior Jesus Christ, since this would still prove the divinity of the risen Lord.

The Hebrew Bible expressly teaches that Jehovah is the only righteous God and Savior, and that he alone justifies or makes a person righteous. This is why Jehovah commands all the ends of earth to turn to him in order to be saved:   

“Make your report, present your case. Let them consult together in unity. Who foretold this long ago And declared it from times past? Is it not I, Jehovah? There is no other God but me; A righteous God and a Savior, there is none besides me. Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth, For I am God, and there is no one else. By myself I have sworn; The word has gone out of my mouth in righteousness, And it will not return: To me every knee will bend, Every tongue will swear loyalty And say, ‘Surely IN Jehovah are true righteousness and strength. All those enraged against him will come before him in shame. IN Jehovah all the offspring of Israel will prove to be right, And in him they will make their boast.’” Isaiah 45:21-25

Therefore, the only way that saving faith could come about through the righteousness or impartiality of both God and Jesus Christ is if the inspired Apostle is operating under the belief that the Father and his beloved Son are essentially coequal, which is why they together form a single Source of salvation and all spiritual blessings.

This point comes out even more clearly when Acts records Peter, full of the Holy Spirit, declaring to the religious authorities that there is no other Person or name by which a person can ever be saved besides that of the risen Christ:

“While the two were speaking to the people, the priests, the captain of the temple, and the Sadducees came up to them. These were annoyed because the apostles were teaching the people and were openly declaring the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. So they seized them and took them into custody until the next day, for it was already evening. However, many of those who had listened to the speech believed, and the number of the men became about 5,000. The next day their rulers, elders, and scribes gathered together in Jerusalem, along with Anʹnas the chief priest, Caʹia·phas, John, Alexander, and all who were relatives of the chief priest. They stood Peter and John in their midst and began to question them: “By what power or in whose name did you do this?’ Then Peter, filled with holy spirit, said to them: ‘Rulers of the people and elders, if we are being examined today about a good deed to a crippled man, and you want to know who made this man well, let it be known to all of you and to all the people of Israel that in the name of Jesus Christ the Naz·a·reneʹ, whom you executed on a stake but whom God raised up from the dead, by means of him this man stands here healthy in front of you. This is “the stone that was treated by you builders as of no account that has become the chief cornerstone.” Furthermore, there is no salvation in anyone else, for there is no other name under heaven that has been given among men by which we must get saved.’ Now when they saw the outspokenness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were uneducated and ordinary men, they were astonished. And they began to realize that they had been with Jesus. As they were looking at the man who had been cured standing with them, they had nothing to say in answer to this.” Acts 4:1-14

Peter and the Jews knew that it is Jehovah’s name alone that brings about the salvation of the world, which means that the Jewish council would have no doubt understood that the holy Apostle was deliberately proclaiming Christ as that very Jehovah God who had become flesh for the salvation of the world.

There’s simply no way of getting around these inspired truths of the God-breathed Scriptures.

FURTHER READING

PETER & THE DEITY OF CHRIST

NWT: A PERVERTED TRANSLATION

Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Deity of Christ

THE NEW WORLD TRANSLATION PROVES JESUS IS UNCREATED!

The New World Translation Proves Jesus Reigns as Jehovah in Heaven!

New World Translation On Jehovah Becoming Flesh